by Christiane Cunnar, Human Relations Area Files
Cultural views on medicine and medicinal
systems vary widely. For example, a Western doctor may diagnose
an illness as being caused by germs and prescribe penicillin as
cure, a traditional healer may interpret an illness as being
caused by evil spirits and perform elaborate rituals and animal
sacrifices to cure the illness of the patient.
Medical centers that are treating patients from diverse ethnic
backgrounds are now paying more attention to medical beliefs and
practices that are outside the biomedical paradigm. They are
starting to incorporate social and cultural differences into the
medical learning curriculum.
The eHRAF World Cultures (http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu)
database can be used for a cross-cultural study of medical
systems. The following exercises are designed to find illness
causations and medicinal treatments across cultures. As you
answer the various assignments and compare and contrast the
cultural particulars, think about the following aspects. How
does a culture classify causes of disease? What illnesses have
similar causes? Who are the healers and medical practitioners
and what are their names? What is the indigenous name of the
disease? Who is being affected (e.g., ethnicity, age, sex)? What
is the type of treatment? What is the indigenous name of the
treatment? To what extent may the family or the community get
involved in the cure of the disease? How does the diagnosis and
treatment of the disease compare your own cultural beliefs?
Please note that eHRAF may contain documents over a wide range of time periods. If you encounter documents written more than 50 years ago, discuss how political-economic (e.g., globalization, introduction of market economy and democracy) and other forces may have affected the medical system (e.g., increased use of biomedical products).
You may use the eHRAF World Cultures (http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu)
database to study the various topics in medical anthropology.
The following exercises show how to find information ranging
from theory of disease to medicinal cures to ethnobotany and
ethnozoology.
eHRAF User Guide:
The eHRAF
User Guides contains very helpful tips and search
examples on how to search in eHRAF. If you have questions
about searching in the databases, don't hesitate to contact us
at hraf@yale.edu,
1-203-764-9401 or 1-800-520-HRAF.
1. Theory of Disease
Using the eHRAF World Cultures database, compare and
contast disease causation for five cultures from
different major regions. As you compare and contrast the
cultural particulars, think about the following aspects. How
does a culture classify causes of disease? What illnesses have
similar causes? Who are the healers and medical practitioners
and what are their names? What is the indigenous name of the
disease? Who is being affected (e.g., ethnicity, age, sex)? What
is the type of treatment? What is the indigenous name of the
treatment? To what extent may the family or the community get
involved in the cure of the disease? How does the diagnosis and
treatment of the disease compare your own cultural beliefs?
2. Disease Causation as Defined by
George P. Murdock
There are many different theories on illness causation. In his
classification system George Peter Murdock defines illness
causation as "natural" and "supernatural" as
outlined in the list below (Moore 1988).
| Theory of Natural Causation | Theory of Supernatural Causation |
|
a. Infection b. Stress c. Organic Deterioration d. Accident |
I. Mystical
Causation e. Fate f. Ominous Sensation g. Contagion h. Mystical Retribution |
| II. Animistic
Causation i. Soul Loss j. Spirit Aggression |
|
| III. Magical
Causation k. Sorcery l. Witchcraft |
| Notes on
Definitions-(Murdock, 1980) a. "Defined as invasion of the victim's body by noxious microorganisms..." p. 9 b. "Defined as exposure of the victim to either physical or psychic strain..." p. 9 c. "Defined as a decline in physical capacities attending the onset of old age.." p. 10 d. "Defined as the suffering of some physical injury under circumstances which appear to exclude both intention...and....supernatural intervention..." p. 10 e. "Defined as the ascription of illness to astrological influences, individual predestination or personified ill luck." p.17 f. "Defined as the experiencing of particularly potent kinds of dreams, sights, sounds or other sensations which are believed to cause...illness." p. 18 g. "Defined as coming into contact with some purportedly polluting object, substance or person." p. 18 h. "Defined as acts in violation of some taboo...causing illness..." p. 18 i. "Defined as the ascription of illness…to the departure of the victim's soul from his body." p. 19 j. "Defined as the attribution of illness to the...action of some...supernatural being." p. 20 k. "Defined as the ascription of the impairment of health to the aggressive use of magical techniques by a human being..." p. 21 l. "Defined as the ascription of the impairment of health to the suspected voluntary or involuntary aggressive action of a member of a special class of human beings believed to be endowed with a special power and propensity for evil." p. 21 |
Exercise: Select one or more of the disease causation concepts from the chart above. Using the eHRAF World Cultures (http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu) database and other sources, find at least three cultures from different major regions (e.g., Asia, Africa, Europe, North America) with information relating to a type of disease causation selected. In an essay compare and contrast the cultural similarities and differences for the various concepts.
Please note that different search strategies exist for this type of search. See the eHRAF User Guides for help. Hints: Please note that "sorcery" and "theory of disease" are represented by OCM subjects/codes and may used in a Boolean search.
3. Specific Illnesses: Causes and
Medicinal Remedies
Cultural views vary on the causes of certain illnesses. Consider
the common cold. Gilliland (1986) notes that some Eastern
European groups such as the Croats believe that chilling a part
of the body causes a cold. Examples are sitting in a drafty room
or on a cold surface such as stone or metal, washing one's hair
and then going outside into cold air, or getting wet in the
rain. Describing Croatian medicinal remedies, Bennett
remarks on the value of rakija (a mild liquor) and how it
"will cure everything from a cut to the common cold
(Bennett 1974)." According to Laura Bohannan (1953), the
Tiv of Nigeria believe that the common cold is associated with
the phases of the moon and Paul Bohannan (1969) notes that
"eating raw onions" can be used to treat the cold.
Gould-Martin (1975) states that the Taiwan-Hokkien believe that
cold is caused by "fright or offense." Levine reports
that the Amhara of Ethopia the believe "that smelling the
urine of another will give one a cold (Levine 1965)." In
the United States, health professionals warn that the common
cold is usually caused by viral infections and that a person
should frequently wash one's hands with soap to prevent a cold.
Once the cold is caught then nasal decongestants and cold
medications are usually taken.
Exercise: Select three or more of the illnesses
and conditions from the list below. Perform searches in the
eHRAF World Cultures (http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu)
to find at five (or more) cultures from different major
regions. Compare and contrast the cultural views regarding the
following: 1. illness causation and 2. medicinal
remedies for the illnesses that you have selected. This
exercise involves two separate searches. See the eHRAF
User Guides for help. Hints: Please note that
"medicinal remedies" and "theory of disease"
are represented by OCM subjects/codes and may used with a word search (e.g. measles influenza toothache*) in the Lookup Search.
| List of illnesses and conditions: | |
| 1. Smallpox or
small-pox 2. Malaria 3. Cholera 4. Influenza 5. Rheumatism 6. Stomachache 7. Toothache 8. Diarrhea 9. Asthma |
10. Measles 11. Syphilis 12. Chickenpox 13. Tuberculosis 14. Pneumonia 15. Fever 16. Boils 17. Ulcer 18. Tumor |
4. Literate Medical Systems
The four "literate" medical systems include: 1.
Chinese, 2. Ayurvedic, 3. Greek, and 4.Unani (Rebhun 2001). The
Chinese medical system finds its roots in the first century B.C.
and manifests itself in bi-polar typology: Yin which includes
the earth, moon, water, cold, female, etc. and Yang which
includes the sky, sun, dry, hot, male, etc. Chinese healers
believe in preventing illnesses through a balanced diet and
regular exercise and they prefer the use of herbs, acupuncture,
and acupressure when treating patients. The Ayurvedic medical
system developed in India around two thousand years ago and
include cures such as massages, cupping, sweat-baths, and
meditation. The Greek medical system originated in the fourth
century B.C. and became the basis of biomedicine. This medical
system assumed that there were four "humors" namely
blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile which must be kept in
balance. The Greek medical system has been practiced in Southern
Europe and Latin America and treatments include herbs, cupping,
purging, and blood-letting. The Unani medical system,
prevalent in countries that practicing Islam, incorporates
facets of the Ayurvedic and Chinese medical systems.
Exercise: Use the eHRAF World Cultures (http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu)
to find supporting information for the literate medical systems.
Select one or more of the terms from the list below. In
the Lookup Search of the eHRAF World Cultures database perform
various searches to find information on these medical practices
in terms of causes of illnesses and medicinal remedies.
Relate your findings to the medical systems. Pay attention to
the cultures that use these medical systems. Since eHRAF
contains many time periods (see Field Date and/or Date of
Publication in the full-text), see if the medical system has
changed over time.
Please note that different search strategies exist for this type of search. See the eHRAF User Guides for help. Hints: Please note that "medicinal remedies" and "theory of disease" are represented by OCM subjects/codes and may used in a Boolean search.
Terms referring to practices or ideas in the four literate
medical systems:
| 1. Cupping 2. Blood-letting 3. Hot and cold 4. Wet and dry 5. Purging |
6. Cauterization 7. Massage 8. Acupuncture 9. Acupressure |
5. Ethnobotany and its Medical Uses
In many folk medicines and traditional healing practices plants
and herbal medicines are believed to have healing properties.
For example, the antiseptic properties of garlic are widely
known. Garlic has been used to cure everything-from bites,
colds, boils, furuncles, wounds, fevers. Ginger is not only used
for treating eye inflammations, stomach-aches, fevers and
cold, but it is also used for childbirth. Rosemary is a
good "general" herbal medication and will cure
everything from headaches to toothaches.
Exercise: Select three or more plant and herbal
names from the list below. Perform searches in the eHRAF
World Cultures (http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu)
database to find at least five cultures from different major
regions. Compare and contrast the cultural views regarding the
medicinal properties. Please note that several OCM subjects can be used
for this exercise. OCMs are available for the following: bodily
injuries, mental and magical therapy, medical therapy,
pharmaceuticals, child birth, post-natal care, etc. See the eHRAF
User Guides for help.
List of Plant, Fruit and Herbal Names:
| 1. Garlic 2. Basil 3. Ginger 4. Ginseng 5. Juniper |
6. Lemon 7. Mint 8. Parsley 9. Rosemary 10. Sage |
6. Ethnozoology and its Medical Uses
Some folk medicines and traditional healing practices believe in
the healing power of animals. For example, in the United States
and European countries eating chicken soup is often viewed as a
good way to cure the common cold. The Eastern Toraja of
Indonesia believe that the saliva of chicken can cure centipede
bites and chicken droppings are applied to wounds. In other
cultures chickens are often sacrificed to appease the spirits
who have inflicted ailments.
Exercise: Select one or more animal names from the
list below. Perform searches in the eHRAF World Cultures (http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu)
to find at least five cultures from different major
regions. Compare and contrast the cultural views regarding the
medicinal properties of animals. Please note that several OCM subjects
can be used for this exercise. OCMs are available for the
following: bodily injuries, mental and magical therapy, medical
therapy, pharmaceuticals, child birth, post-natal care, etc. See
the eHRAF
User Guides for help.
List of Animal Names:
| 1. Cat 2. Dog 3. Snake 4. Lizard |
5. Salamander 6. Frog, toad 7. Tiger 8. Chicken, hen, rooster |
References Cited:
Bennett, Brian Carey
1974 Sutivan: a Dalmatian village in social and
economic transition. San Francisco: R and E Research Associates.
As seen in the eHRAF Collection of Ethnography on the Web,
4/15/02.
Bohannan, Laura
1953 The Tiv of central Nigeria. London:
International African Institute. As seen in the eHRAF Collection
of Ethnography on the Web, 4/15/02.
Bohannan, Paul
1969 A source book on Tiv religion in 5 volumes. New
Haven: Human Relations Area Files. As seen in the eHRAF
Collection of Ethnography on the Web, 4/15/02.
Gilliland, Mary Katherine
1986 The maintenance of family values in a Yugoslav town.
Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International. As seen in
the eHRAF Collection of Ethnography on the Web, 4/15/02.
Gould-Martin, Katherine
1975 Medical systems in a Taiwan village: ONG-IA-KONG, the
plague god as modern physician. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, National
Institutes of Health. As seen in the eHRAF Collection of
Ethnography on the Web, 4/15/02.
Levine, Donald Nathan
1965 Wax & gold: tradition and innovation in Ethiopian
culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. As seen in the
eHRAF Collection of Ethnography on the Web, 4/15/02.
Moore, Carmella Caracci
1988 An Optimal Scaling of Murdock's Theories of Illness
Data-An Approach to the Problem of Interdependence 22: 161-179.
Murdock, George P.
1980 Theories of Illness: A World Survey. Pittsburgh:
University of Pittsburgh Press.
Rebhun, Linda-Anne
2001 Lecture Notes for Medical Anthropology (Spring
Semester). Yale University, Department of Anthroplogy.
Unpublished notes.