Search Methods and Examples for eHRAF

Regardless of the topic, the search methodology for eHRAF is very "patterned" as you will see in the Search Examples below the Search Methodology section. The key to successful searching is using an appropriate OCM (if needed), word(s) that define the subject or action, and the appropriate Boolean operators (and, or, not).  Truncate a word at the word stem and use an asterisk (*).  Try  to avoid phrases in one box, but instead use one word per box.  Although you can take any word and restrict it to any OCM code, some word choices are better than others. 

1. "OCM-in-Paragraphs" Search
The topic of your interest may be expressed with an OCM subject code. For example, "illness causation" (a broad topic) is represented by OCM 753 (Theory of Disease). An OCM Subject Code search is by far the most thorough search for a broad topic as you will find more relevant information in paragraphs where you least expect it (e.g., foreign language text).  

2. "Word-in-Titles" Search
May be seen as an alternative to the "OCM-in-Paragraphs" Search as you can retrieve "broader" topics by searching for words in the sub- and chapter titles of documents. Using the Boolean operator "or" in combination with words (e.g, illness, sickness, disease) expands the search.

3. "OCM/Word-in-Paragraphs" Search 
Searching for a word alone (e.g., "cold") can sometimes yield too many matches. However, combining an OCM with a 'filters' your search and directs it to the relevant text.  For example, '753 and cold' finds causes of cold (as illness), whereas '262 and cold' finds cold in terms of food and diet.

4. "OWC/Culture Search" (example not shown)
It is recommended that you use the default "All Cultures" and then select the culture(s) from the results page. Please don't type in culture names and geographic region names in the word boxes as eHRAF automatically searches all the cultures and major regions (e.g., Africa, Asia).  The "Browse Cultures" feature in eHRAF shows  the cultures, regions, and countries currently included in the database.

Locating the OCMs in eHRAF 
The OCM subject codes in eHRAF are located in  "Browse Subjects"  section of the databases. See the eHRAF User Guides for more information.

 eHRAF Search Strategies

  • The word choice may be the most important aspect of searching (successfully) in eHRAF. The search engine uses "exact" word searching--this means that one too many letters, words or phrases, spaces between words, hyphens and typos will influence the search results.
  • Use "Titles" for words describing "broad" concepts (e.g., botany, music, illness) as the titles of the chapters and subchapters are searched. Use "Paragraphs" for words describing "specific" actions or objects (e.g., sagebrush, flute, influenza) as paragraphs usually contain more specific wording.
  • Try word variations and different words (e.g., flu, influenza, Grippe (German for flu). Once you have performed a few searches and have reviewed the text for the results, you may find that the author's choice of words in text will give you further clues. 
  • Truncate a word at the word stem using an "*" asterisk (e.g., child* for children, child's, childhood, etc.) to expand your search. By the way, you can also truncate an OCM to two digits. For example, truncating OCM 75* (for Sickness) will retrieve all subcategories for sickness (e.g., 751 Preventive Medicine, 752 Bodily Injuries, etc.).
  • Avoid using phrases in one box, but instead use one word per box. Exceptions are phrases that are always used together (e.g., "evil eye," "projectile point," etc.). The more boxes (whether OCM or word boxes) the fewer the search results.
  • The Boolean operators (and, or, not) occur in the OCM Subject Code and Exact Word or Phrase section. Using the appropriate Boolean operator greatly enhances your search results!

          And (both terms must be present in the same paragraph) >>> narrows a search
          Or (either term must be present in the same paragraph) >>> expands a search
          Not (excludes the second term in paragraph) >>> narrows a search

  • Some of the documents in eHRAF were written many years ago and some of the expressions were not used then. For example, "domestic violence," is a fairly recent expression (although the concept is old), and thus words used then seem more ordinary-- like "fighting," "beating," "hitting." This is where OCM subject codes can help in finding appropriate information. 
  • You may search for graphics in eHRAF by using an OCM or word and by typing in "<graphic" (without quotes) in the 'Exact Word or Phrase' box.  For example, OCM 532 and <graphic searches for pictures in representative arts.
  • If you are performing many searches in eHRAF, a printed copy of the culture results page helps you to keep track of your searches and can be used to evaluate your results.
  • The ethnographic nature of the documents makes eHRAF a valuable tool in searching for contemporary as well as traditional and past cultural practices. So, please pay attention to the fieldwork and publication dates that are listed on the pages, and keep in mind that foreign (primarily Western) influence may have changed the customs of cultures in the last few decades. 
  • Use the eHRAF Collection of Ethnography in combination with the eHRAF Collection of Archaeology as the two databases compliment each other in the study of time and place.
  • A hard copy of the Outline of Cultural Materials (OCM) manual with a list the all the OCM subject codes and their descriptions and an alphabetic index is best for the frequent user of eHRAF. You can order a copy from HRAF.
  • For database assistance and help contact HRAF at hraf@yale.edu, 1-800-520 or 203-764-9401. 
eHRAF Search Examples
Regardless of the topic, the search methodology for eHRAF is very 'patterned' as the following examples will demonstrate.

Ethnomedicine: Theory of Disease
Word-in-Title Search:
Illness* OR sickness* OR diseas*  >>> chapters and subchapters for illness, sicknesses, or diseases.

Word-in-Title Search:
Illness* AND caus*   >>> chapters and subchapters on "causes of illness." 

OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 753  >>> paragraphs on theory of disease (753).

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 753 AND cold OR colds >>> paragraphs on causes of colds, concepts of cold relating to illness causation.
Other word suggestions for specific illnesses and conditions: smallpox (small-pox), fever, malaria, cough, cholera, measles, syphilis, chickenpox (chicken-pox), influenza, flu, rheuma* (rheumatic, rheumatism, etc.), stomach (stomachache, stomach-ache, stomach ache, etc.) tooth (toothache, tooth-ache, etc.), diarrhea, asthma, tuberulosis, pneumonia, boil, ulcer, tumor, etc. Also try words in Spanish, French, and German.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 753 AND bloodlet* OR blood-let* >>> paragraphs on how blood-letting relates to theory of disease.
Other word suggestions for specific illnesses and conditions: Cupping, hot, cold, wet, dry, purging, cauterization, massage, acupuncture, acupressure. Also try words in Spanish, French, and German.

Ethnomedicine: Medicinal Remedies
Word-in-Title Search:
Medic* OR treat* OR remed*  >>> chapters and subchapters on medicine, medication, medicinal, treatment, remedy, remedies.

OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 757  >>> paragraphs on medical therapy (757).

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 757 OR 278 AND cold >>> paragraphs on cold remedies (757) and pharmaceutical products (278)  for cold.
Other word suggestions for specific illnesses and conditions: smallpox (small-pox), fever, malaria, cough, cholera, measles, syphilis, chickenpox (chicken-pox), influenza, flu, rheumatism, stomach, stomachache, tooth, toothache, diarrhea, asthma, tuberulosis, pneumonia, boil, ulcer, tumor, etc. Also try words in Spanish, French, and German.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 757 OR 278 AND snake* OR serpent* OR Schlang* >>> paragraphs on snakes or serpents or Schlangen (German) in terms of medicinal remedies (757) or pharmaceutical (278).
Other word suggestions for animals: Cat, dog, lizard, salamander, frog, toad, tiger, chicken, hen, rooster, etc. Also try words in German, French, and Spanish.

Ethnobotany:
Word-in-Title Search:
Plant* OR herb*  Or botan* >>> chapters and subchapters on plants,  herbs, botany, botanical..

OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 824  >>> paragraphs on ethnobotany (824).

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 824 AND onion* >>> paragraphs on onions in terms of ethnobotany (824).

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 757 AND onion*  >>> paragraphs on onions as medicinal remedy (757).
Other word suggestions for herbal remedies: garlic, ginger, juniper, mint, parsley, rosemary, sagebrush, basil, lemon, parsley, ginseng, juniper, chokecherry, onion, etc.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 262 OR 263 AND onion*  >>> paragraphs on onions in diet (262) or in condiments (263).

Ethnozoology:
Word-in-Title Search:
Zoolog* OR animal*  Or fauna* >>> chapters and subchapters on zoology, animals, fauna.

OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 825  >>> paragraphs on ethnozoology (825).

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 825 AND snake* OR serpent* OR Schlang* >>> paragraphs on snakes or serpents or Schlangen (German) in terms of ethnozoology (825).
Other word suggestions for animals: Cat, dog, lizard, salamander, frog, toad, tiger, chicken, hen, rooster, etc. Try also words in German, French, and Spanish.

Ethnomusicology:
Word-in-Title Search:
Instrument OR instruments  >>> chapters and subchapters for musical instrument(s).

OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 534  >>> paragraphs on musical instruments (534).

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 534 AND flute*  >>> paragraphs on "flutes as musical instruments (534)."

Diet:
Word-in-Title Search:
Diet*  >>> chapters and subchapters on diet.

OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 262  >>> paragraphs on diet.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 262 AND salt >>> paragraphs on "salt used in diet (262)".
Other word suggestions: hot, cold, manioc, bread, milk, rice, potato, chicken, goat, etc.

Reproductive Health: Menstruation, Conception, Pregnancy, and Childbirth

Menstruation (Taboos, Diet)

Menstruation (General)
Word-in-Title Search:
Mense* OR menstruat* >>> chapters and subchapters on menstruation.

OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 841 >>> paragraphs on all aspects of menstruation.

Menstruation Taboos
OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 841 AND 784 >>> paragraphs on menstruation taboos.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 841 AND taboo* OR tabu* OR tabou* >>> paragraphs on menstruation taboos.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 841 AND hut* >>> paragraphs on menstruation huts.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 784 AND menstruat* OR mense* >>> paragraphs on menstruation taboos.

Menstruation and Diet
OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 841 AND 262 >>> paragraphs on diet restrictions for menstruation.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 841 AND diet* OR  food* >>> paragraphs on diet or food for menstruation.
Other word suggestions: You can also try specific foods such as spices, fish, beets, etc. 

Conception
Word-in-Title Search:
Conception* >>> chapters and subchapters on conception.

OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 842 >>> paragraphs on all aspects of conception.

Pregnancy (Taboos, Diet)

Pregnancy (General)
Word-in-Title Search:
Pregnan*  >>> chapters and subchapters on pregnancy, pregnant women, etc..

OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 843 >>> paragraphs on all aspects of pregnancy.

Pregnancy Taboos
OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 842 AND 784 >>> paragraphs on pregnancy taboos.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 842 AND taboo* OR tabu* OR tabou* >>> paragraphs on pregnancy taboos.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 784 AND pregnan*  >>> paragraphs on menstruation taboos.
Word suggestions: foreign words for pregnancy, e.g., Schwanger, enceinte, grosse, embarazada, etc.

Pregnancy and Diet
OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 842 AND 262 >>> paragraphs on diet restrictions for pregnancy.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 842 AND diet* OR food* >>> paragraphs on diet or food for pregnancy.
Other word suggestions: You can also try specific foods such as spices, fish, beets, red foods, etc. 

Childbirth
Word-in-Title Search:
Birth*  >>> chapters and subchapters on childbirth.
Word suggestions: foreign words for childbirth, e.g., Entbinding, Geburt, naissance, nacimiento, etc.

OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 844 OR 845  >>> paragraphs on 'regular' or 'difficult or unusual' childbirth.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 844 OR 845 AND placenta* OR afterbirth* OR after-birth*  >>> retrieves all the paragraphs on placenta (afterbirth) in terms of childbirth.
Word suggestions: umbilical cord, foreign words such as Nabelschnur, ombilical, Plazenta, Mutterkuchen, etc.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 844 OR 845 AND squat*  >>> paragraphs on the "squatting" as birthing position.
Word suggestions for childbirth positions: stand*, knee* (for kneeling), lying, leaning, crouching, etc.

Body Alteration and Tattooing:
Word-in-Title Search:
Tattoo* OR tatoo*  >>> chapters and subchapters on tattooing.

OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 304  >>> paragraphs on any kind of body alteration (including tattooing, cranial deformation, tooth filing, piercing of nose, ears, lips).

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 304 AND tattoo* OR tatoo*  >>> paragraphs on tattooing in terms of "body alteration."
Other word suggestions: tooth, teeth, ear, head, nose, lips, etc.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 531 AND tattoo* OR tatoo*  >>> paragraphs on tattooing in terms of "decorative art."

Arts:
Word-in-Title Search:
Art OR arts OR artist*  >>> chapters and subchapters on art and artists.

OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 531 OR 532  >>> paragraphs on decorative arts (531) or representative arts (532).

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 531 AND wood*  >>> paragraphs on wood in terms of "decorative art."

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 532 AND wood*  >>> paragraphs on wood in terms of "representative art."
Other word suggestions: feather, glass, stone, eagle, wolf, bear, wolf, snake, etc.

Mythology:
Word-in-Title Search:
Myth*  >>> chapters and subchapters for mythology, mythologies, myth, myths.

OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 773  >>> paragraphs on mythology (773).

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 773 AND moon*  >>> paragraphs on moon in terms of "mythology."

Other word suggestions: sun, stars, heaven, hell, animals such as bears, coyote, wolf.; foreign words such as Sonne, Mond, Sterne, sol, luna, estrella, soleil, lune, etc.

Cosmology:
Word-in-Title Search:
Cosmo*  >>> chapters and subchapters on cosmology, cosmologies, cosmos.

OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 772 >>>  paragraphs on the conception of the universe and cosmological systems.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 772 AND sun AND moon  >>> paragraphs on sun and moon in terms of "cosmology."
Other word suggestions: sun, stars, heaven, hell, animals such as bears, coyote, wolf, etc.; also try foreign words such as Sonne, Mond, Sterne, sol, luna, estrella, soleil, lune.

Hide Working & Leather Industry:
Word-in-Title Search:
Hide*  >>> chapters and subchapters on hides, hide working, etc.
Other word suggestions: leather, tanning, skin dressing, skins, etc.

OCM-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 281 >>> paragraphs on work in skins, tanning, hide working, etc.
OCM 282 >>> paragraphs on leather industry.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 281 AND brain*  >>> paragraphs on the use of animal brains (as tanning chemical) for hides and leather.
Other word suggestion for materials used for hide working: liver, oil, fat, butter, fish, salt, bark, lime, water.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 281 AND deer*  >>> paragraphs on the use of deer for hides and leather.
Other word suggestion for animals used for hide working: elk, moose, bison, buffalo, cow, horse, rabbit, seal, beaver, otter, goat, sheep, cougar, panther, lion, bear, wolf.

OCM/Word-in-Paragraph Search:
OCM 281 OR 282 AND bag*  >>> paragraphs on bags as leather or hide product.
Other word suggestion for leather and hide products: baskets, pants, trousers, shirts, dress, skirt, belt, shoes, boots, sandals, moccasins, mats, bedding, quiver, shelter (house, tent, dwelling).
Please note that the words listed throughout the search examples are only suggestions. Not all words will be found in the text of eHRAF.
Search in eHRAF Web design & text written by Christiane Cunnar, HRAF
Browse Cultures (OWC) in eHRAF
Browse Subjects (OCM) in eHRAF

For suggestions, questions, and feedback, please email christiane.cunnar@yale.edu or call 1-800-520-HRAF (203-764-9401).