Tattooing and Techniques of Cross-Cultural Research
Part II: Propositional Inventories for Tattoo Project

by William Divale

 Department of Anthropology

York College (City University of New York), Jamaica, NY

Following are the collected hypotheses of students from York College. 

I put any comments I made after the hypotheses in italics and bold print.

Some of the hypotheses are testable using pre-coded variables that were made by other researchers and published for the standard cross-cultural sample. You can find them by Variable Number, e.g., V120, V238, etc. in the Pre-Coded Variables book.

Some of the hypotheses are okay, but just not testable using typical ethnographic data.


PROPOSITIONAL INVENTORY BY STUDENT A

Ceniceros, Salvador. 1998. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. Aug: Vol. 186. P. 503-504.

Hypothesis: 
A very strong relationship exists between the number and types of tattoos and body piercing a person has and their involvement in Russian Roulette.

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. It also carries no explanation value.

Duncan, David F. 1989. MMPI Scores of Tattooed and Non-Tattooed Prisoners. Psychological Reports. 65: 685-686.

Hypothesis: 
No relationship exists between the presence of a tattoo and the presence of a personality disorder.

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. The hyp. is interesting but just not testable with hraf.

Grumet, Gerald W. 1983. Psychodynamic implications of tattoos. Amer. J. Orthopsychiat. 53:482-492.

Hypothesis: 
If we study individuals with tattoos then we can gain insight into his/her personality.

We may be able to test a variety of this, such as, “Societies that have tattooing should favor certain personality traits.”

Hage, Per., Hararv, Fran L, Milicie, Boika. 1996. Tattooing, Gender, and Social Stratification in Micro-Polynesia. J. Amer. Royal Anthro. Ins. 2: 335-350.

Hypotheses:

1. Differences in tattooing were associated with intrinsic differences in rank.

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

2. Where hypergamy led to the superior rank of sisters over brothers and a sacred sister complex, females were either not tattooed or were less tattooed than males.

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

3. Chiefly sanctity was associated with restrictions on tattooing. /in chiefly diarchies the scared ruler was untattooable. While the secular, executive ruler was tattooable and tattooed.

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

4. The combination of 2) and 3) produced non-tattooed couples at the head of chiefly.

We may be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

Houghton, Steven. Durkin, Kevin. Carroll, Annemaree. 1995. Children's and Adolescent's Awareness of the Physical and Mental Health Risks Associated with Tattooing: A Focus Group Study. Adolescence. 30: 971-988. 

Hypothesis: 
Children's awareness of the physical and mental health risks are associated with the increasing practice of tattooing.

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

Roe, Allan. Howell, Robert J. Payne, 1. Reed. 1974. Comparison of prison inmates with and without Juvenile Records. Psychological Reports. June. Vol. 34. P. 13151319. 

Hypothesis: 
In general, the more criminal involvement a youngster and the longer the periods of incarcerations prior to 18, the higher should be the expectation of continued involvement in crime.

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

Sanders, Clinton. 1988. Marks of Mischief Becoming and Being Tattooed. Jan. Vol. 16. No. 4. P. 395 - 432. 

Hypothesis: ??

Sanders, Clinton R. 1991. Memorial Decoration: Women, Tattooing, and the Meanings of Body Alteration. Michigan Quarterly Review. 30: 146-157. 

Hypothesis: 
Tattoos have meanings across cultures.

I don’t think this statement accurately reflects the meaning of the above article. I suggest you read the article again and try to more accurately abstract the hypotheses. I suspect this paper will have some interesting hypotheses.

Singh, Deverdra. Bronstad, P. Mathew. 1997. Sex Differences in the Anatomical Locations of Human Body Scarification and Tattooing as a Function of Pathogen Prevalence. Evolution and Human Behavior. Vol. 18. P. 403-416.

Hypothesis: 
As pathogen seventy increases, so should permanent markings of body areas that are attended for evaluating attractiveness and mate quality.

We will be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

Tannenbaum, Nicola. 1987. Tattoos: Invulnerability and Power in Shan Cosmology. Amer. Ethnologist. 14: 693-711. 

Hypothesis:

1. There is a relationship between Buddhism and animism. 

Not related to tattoos.

2. Tattoos are used as symbols of power and social stratification in Shan culture.

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

PROPOSITIONAL INVENTORY BY STUDENT B

1) There is an association between erotic piercing and homosexuality, sadomasochism, bondage, fetishism, and tattoos (Burich, 1983).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

2) By reviewing the history and practice of tattooing there will be psychologically relevant themes, which will provide analysts with additional diagnostic information (Grumet, 1983).

This is why we are doing this project. What else does Grumet say?

3) Tattooing is an attempt to acquire identity (Edgerton, Dingman, 1963).

We may be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

4) Prostitutes who have tattoos do so because of strong masochist-exhibitionistic drives (Parry, 1934).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

5) They (tattoos) can often be understood self-constructive and adorning efforts rather than prematurely subsumed as mutilatory and destructive acts (Martin, 1997).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

6) Tattooed prisoners would be lower on sex guilt than non-tattooed prisoners (Mosher, et. al, 1967). 

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

7) Tattooed prisoners would have more feminine interests than the non-tattooed prisoners (Mosher et. al, 1967).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

8) In our culture persons who have certain types of self-concepts will be more likely to tattoo themselves than persons with other self-concepts (Burma, 1959).

We should be able to test a variety of this hypothesis using pre-coded variables, such as societies with tattoos will be of a certain type, e.g., collective, or favor certain personality traits.

9) Inmates with juvenile records were more likely to be tattooed (Roe et. al, 1974).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

10) Psychological analysis shows that deep, unrevealed motives, particularly sexual ones, were responsible for the call of the tattoo (Bromberg, 1972).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

11) Tattooing fulfills a psychic need in the ego development of those persons who run into difficulty synthesizing their identity (Hamburger, 1963).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

PROPOSITIONAL INVENTORY BY STUDENT C

1) There is a significant correlation between the presence of tattoos and delinquency (Burma 1959; Measey 1971; Verberne, 1969).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

2) Extraversion and introversion are products of cortical arousal. (Eysenck and Eysenck 1967).

Not related to tattoos.

3) People with tattoos are more likely to be extraverted than introverted. (John H. Copes and Graig J. Forsyth, 1993).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

4) Tattooed subjects were more often group dependent, more rebellious, emotional, and active (Verberne, 1969).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

5) There were a significant correlation between extroversion and delinquency. (Eysenck, 1977).

Not related to tattoos.

6) Delinquency might be a result (as is the tattoo) of the extrovert's low arousal level and their need for stimulation, instead of being caused by a personality disorder (Eysenck, 1977).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

7) Tattooed female Borstal inmates were more criminal in their attitudes, showed more aggressive behavior, scored higher on tension and anxiety, and were more masculine in their sexual orientation and behavior than were nontattooed girls (Taylor, 1968).

We may be able to test a variety of this hypothesis using pre-coded variables, such as female dominance would be more prevalent in societies where females are tattooed.

8) Tattooed prisoners showed significantly higher barrier scores on the Holtzman Inkblot Test and lower body cathexis scores on the Secord-Jourard Body Cathexis Scale (Mosher, et al., 1967).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

9) There is a 90% rejection rate for neuropsychiatric difficulties at an induction center among men with tattoos of LOVE and TRUE LOVE inscribed across their fingers. (Ferguson-Rayport et al., 1955).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

10) In Western culture pattern there might be a greater likelihood of tattooed persons having an abnormal personality than persons who are not tattooed (Wells, 1964).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

11) Over-compensation for homosexual inclinations might be one underlying mechanism in the tattooed group (Mckerracher, Watson, 1969).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

12) Psychopathic or social or emotional maladjustment was significantly higher among the tattooed than the non-tattooed (____, 1969).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

13) Extremely unstable social histories and physical violence’s were recorded among the offenses committed by the tattooed men than the non-tattooed (Mckerracher et al., 1966).

We may be able to test a variety of this hypothesis using pre-coded variables, such as societies with tattoos are more warlike.

14) “Becoming tattoo is a highly social act" that is experimented with close associates (Sanders, 1998: 404, 406).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

15) Tattoos identify males in a tribe (Bonierbale-Branchereau and Valero, 1986).

This statement is not clear. What is meant by “identify males.”

PROPOSITIONAL INVENTORY BY STUDENT D

1) Tattoos found on a group of men admitted to the State Penitentiary (Haines and Hufftnan,1958.)

This is not a hypothesis; it has no predictive value, e.g., if A, then B.

2) In our culture, persons who have certain types of self concepts will be more likely to tattoo themselves than persons with other self concepts." (Bruma, 1959)

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

3) A new and novel addition to correctional institution rehabilitative program; notably the plastic surgery intervention to reduce or eliminate disfiguring features whether in the form of scars, tattoos, or structural abnormalities" (Holt, et. al, 1967).

This is not a hypothesis; it has no predictive value, e.g., if A, then B.

4) A flaw at some stage of ego formation might be revealed by a study of age at onset of tattooing, as well as the nature of the tattoos themselves (Hamburger, 1963)

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

5) Prisoners who were tattooed under the influence of a friend and were usually intoxicated (Walter, 1935).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

PROPOSITIONAL INVENTORY BY STUDENT F

Tattooed prisoners would have:

1) Higher barrier scores on the Holtzman Inkblot Test 

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

2) Give more body associations to Secord's homonymn Word Association Test

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

3) Feel more positively about their body on the Secord-Jourard Body Cathexis Scale 

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

4) Be lower on sex-guilt 

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

5) Have more feminine interests than the non-tattooed prisoners (Mosher, Oliver and Dolgan 1969).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables.

6) A significant amount of tattooing occurs among delinquents (Burma, 1959).

This hypothesis is not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

7) Tattoos can serve as marks of disaffiliation with law﷓abiding society and of affiliation with outlaw subcultures (Grumet, 1983).

This hypothesis is probably not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

PROPOSITIONAL INVENTORY BY STUDENT G

1. There is no real deviance with prisoners that have tattoos compared to prisoners that do not have tattoos (Duncan, 1989).

This hypothesis is probably not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

2) Youngsters involved in criminal activity and incarcerated for longer periods of time before age 18 have a higher expectation to continue in crime when they get older (Howell, 1974).

This hypothesis is probably not testable using ethnographic data in the HRAF. 

3) Tattooing and body piercing reflects or predicts self-injury or violence towards others (Ceniceros, 1998).

We should be able to test this hypothesis using pre-coded variables. Perhaps societies that have tattoos will have more violence, feuding, etc.?

4) Studying people with tattoos provides a basis to learn about their personality (Grumet, 1983).

This is an assumption of our project, but not really worthwhile as a hypothesis.

INDEX

Part I: Syllabus

Part II: Outline of Basic Steps of a Cross-Cultural Study
(contains Proposition Inventories, Data Entry Sheet, etc.)

Part III: Outline of a Cross Cultural Study Paper

Part I V: Outline of a Conference Paper