OUTLINE OF CULTURAL MATERIALS

By George P. Murdock et al.

FIFTH EDITION with modifications 2004

New Haven, Connecticut, USA

GENERAL TOPICS

Click to expand the topic

A to Z Index Basic Information History, Prehistory, and Culture Change Language and Communication Economy, Food, and Resource Exploitation Technology and Material Culture Marriage, Family, Kinship, and Social Organization Social Relationships Life Cycle Sexuality and Reproduction Political Organization and Behavior Justice, Law, and Social Problems International and Interethnic Relations Religion Health, Illness, Medicine, and Death Education and Knowledge Arts Recreation Information Sources and Research Basic Information ORIENTATION100 GEOGRAPHY130 HUMAN BIOLOGY140 DEMOGRAPHY160 LANGUAGE190 SETTLEMENTS360 LIVING STANDARDS AND ROUTINES510 History, Prehistory, and Culture Change HISTORY AND CULTURE CHANGE170 TOTAL CULTURE180 SETTLEMENTS360 ARCHAEOLOGICAL MEASURES, TECHNIQUES, AND ANALYSES910 Language and Communication LANGUAGE190 COMMUNICATION200 RECORDS210 TEXTS900 Economy, Food, and Resource Exploitation GEOGRAPHY130 FOOD QUEST220 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY230 AGRICULTURE240 FOOD PROCESSING250 FOOD CONSUMPTION260 DRINK AND DRUGS270 EXPLOITATIVE ACTIVITIES310 PROPERTY420 EXCHANGE430 MARKETING440 FINANCE450 LABOR460 BUSINESS AND INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATION470 LIVING STANDARDS AND ROUTINES510 Technology and Material Culture COMMUNICATION200 LEATHER, TEXTILES, AND FABRICS280 CLOTHING290 ADORNMENT300 PROCESSING OF BASIC MATERIALS320 BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION330 STRUCTURES340 EQUIPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF BUILDINGS350 ENERGY AND POWER370 CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES380 CAPITAL GOODS INDUSTRIES390 MACHINES400 TOOLS AND APPLIANCES410 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION480 LAND TRANSPORT490 WATER AND AIR TRANSPORT500 ARTS530 MILITARY TECHNOLOGY710 Marriage, Family, Kinship, and Social Organization MARRIAGE580 FAMILY590 KINSHIP600 KIN GROUPS610 INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD850 SOCIALIZATION860 Social Relationships INDIVIDUATION AND MOBILITY550 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION560 INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS570 FAMILY590 KINSHIP600 GENDER ROLES AND ISSUES890 Life Cycle BEHAVIOR PROCESSES AND PERSONALITY150 INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD850 ADOLESCENCE, ADULTHOOD, AND OLD AGE880 Sexuality and Reproduction SEX830 REPRODUCTION840 Political Organization and Behavior COMMUNITY620 TERRITORIAL ORGANIZATION630 STATE640 GOVERNMENT ACTIVITIES650 POLITICAL BEHAVIOR660 Justice, Law, and Social Problems LAW670 OFFENSES AND SANCTIONS680 JUSTICE690 SOCIAL PROBLEMS730 International and Interethnic Relations HISTORY AND CULTURE CHANGE170 STATE640 ARMED FORCES700 WAR720 Religion RELIGIOUS BELIEFS770 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES780 ECCLESIASTICAL ORGANIZATION790 Health, Illness, Medicine, and Death SOCIAL PROBLEMS730 HEALTH AND WELFARE740 SICKNESS750 DEATH760 Education and Knowledge NUMBERS AND MEASURES800 SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES810 IDEAS ABOUT NATURE AND PEOPLE820 SOCIALIZATION860 EDUCATION870 TEXTS900 Arts ADORNMENT300 ARTS530 Recreation RECREATION520 COMMERCIALIZED ENTERTAINMENT540 Information Sources and Research INFORMATION SOURCES110 RESEARCH METHODS120 000 MATERIAL NOT RELEVANT This category is used to index text that, for several possible reasons, is not relevant. Reasons for indexing a category with 000 include: the text is about a culture or tradition different from the one that this HRAF file focuses on; the text is not about cultural information but rather is on something pertaining to the document, such as, it is a table of contents, it is the author statement on the title page, etc. ; the text consists of conjectures, personal data not relevant to the culture, etc. Descriptor and Scope Note revised April 2002. 100 ORIENTATIONInformation especially likely to be needed by users of a file as a frame of reference for understanding the materials classified elsewhere; organization of the file, special indexing decisions, and evaluation of the file. This category is not used in eHRAF. In eHRAF, the information is contained in a brief introduction to the file, "Cultural summary: ..." 101 IDENTIFICATION Brief overview or description of the society, ethnic group, tradition, or archaeological site and information on its location in time and space; name of the society, ethnic group, or prehistoric tradition; alternatives names bestowed by selves and others; meanings of names; location of group with reference to comparable and larger groups; names given by selves to other groups; affiliation with a culture area or subarea; period as of which the culture is described, and its relationship to other time periods; local and temporal subdivisions employed in the classification of data; specification of date and locale of field study and review of archaeological sites in the tradition; location of the archaeological site that is the focus of research; etc. Description updated in 2000. Location 131 LOCATION Cultural distributions 171 COMPARATIVE EVIDENCE Linguistic relationships 197 LINGUISTIC IDENTIFICATION Cultural identity 186 CULTURAL IDENTITY AND PRIDE Intracultural differences 184 CULTURAL PARTICIPATION Tribalism, nationalism 619 TRIBE AND NATION Author's experience in the field 114 REVIEWS AND CRITIQUES Territorial organization 630 Ethnic stratification 563 ETHNIC STRATIFICATION 102 MAPS Reproductions of all maps, plans, floor plans, or other graphical representations of space in general and especially in specific archaeological sites and sections within archaeological sites. Specific maps will also be found under the appropriate descriptive category. Description updated in 2000. Route maps and charts 487 ROUTES Recording profile and floor drawings in the field 126 RECORDING AND COLLECTING IN THE FIELD Descriptive geographical data 130 Settlement patterns 361 SETTLEMENT PATTERNS 103 PLACE NAMES Lists of the names of settlements, archaeological sites, and geographical features; etymologies of place names; historical and cultural connotations; bestowal of place names; etc. Personal names 551 PERSONAL NAMES Territorial divisions 631 TERRITORIAL HIERARCHY Ethnogeography 823 ETHNOGEOGRAPHY Settlements 360 Vocabulary 192 VOCABULARY 104 GLOSSARY Definitions of native terms of frequently used in the sources; orthographies and transliteration systems. Word lists and vocabulary 192 VOCABULARY 105 CULTURAL SUMMARY Descriptive synopsis of the whole culture (as a background for specific information); references to summaries in other works. Ethos 181 ETHOS Cultural history 170 106 CODED DATA The concise, quantitative and/or qualitative expression or interpretation of cultural, social, ecological or other variables relating to human behavior; the data are classified into pre-conceived categories represented by number and/or letter codes. Common reasons for presenting data in coded form are to facilitate statistical analyses and/or cross-cultural comparisons. 107 DIAGNOSTIC MATERIAL ATTRIBUTES Artifactual or other material attributes that uniquely identify the society, cultural group, or archaeological tradition. This category was introduced in 1997. Ceramic technology 323 CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY Typology and classification 914 TYPOLOGIES AND CLASSIFICATIONS Lithic technology 324 LITHIC INDUSTRIES Prehistory 172 PREHISTORY 110 INFORMATION SOURCES Sources of information on the particular society as defined and described in the Outline of World Cultures, and data relevant to their evaluation. This category was called "BIBLIOGRAPHY" until 1997. 111 CITATIONS OF DOCUMENTS IN THE HRAF COLLECTION Full bibliographical citations to all documents included, with a brief abstract of each. Documents are numbered. This category is relevant only to the microfiche and paper collections. The bibliographical citations in the eHRAF collections precede the documents to which they pertain and the citations can be searched and retrieved in. In eHRAF, the bibliographical citations are called "citation", not 111. All citations for each culture can be retrieved as a group. The method of retrieval depends on the medium you are using. This category does not appear in the electronic version of HRAF as a searchable OCM category. Instead, in the electronic version a full citation precedes each document. This category was called "SOURCES PROCESSED" until 1997. 112 ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY HRAF compiled bibliographical citations, some annotated, to documents reviewed but not included in the HRAF collection. This category was called "SOURCES CONSULTED" until 1997. 113 INFORMATION SOURCES LISTED IN OTHER WORKS Works referred to in the documents included in the HRAF collections. This term replaced the term "ADDITIONAL REFERENCES" in 1997. In addition, in 1997 a category on artifact and archive collections was introduced. For information on artifact and archive collections indexed before 1997, use this category. For information on artifact and archive collections indexed after 1997, use category 119. 114 REVIEWS AND CRITIQUES Reviews by other authors; critiques of other sources of information; author's comments about his or her other publications; information about authors, other research and field personnel and their backgrounds; general statements on prior field experience; etc. This category was titled "COMMENTS" until 1997. Date and locale of fieldwork 101 IDENTIFICATION Research methods 120 115 INFORMANTS Identification and characterization of persons serving as sources of information. Use of informants and interpreters in field work 124 INTERVIEWING IN RESEARCH Life histories 159 LIFE HISTORY MATERIALS 116 COMPLETE TEXTS OF HRAF DOCUMENTS This category is used for the paper and microfiche files as a repository for complete texts, in page number order, of the documents included in the file. This category is not used in HRAF's electronic collections. Texts (1997 and after) 900 Texts (before 1997) 539 LITERARY TEXTS 117 FIELD DATA Data on journals, diaries, artifacts, field specimens, etc. kept or collected in the field, unorganized field notes, and information on deposition of these materials. Historical and archival research 127 HISTORICAL AND ARCHIVAL RESEARCH Recording and collecting in the field 126 RECORDING AND COLLECTING IN THE FIELD 118 FICTION References to works of fiction about the culture by non-native authors. Fiction about the culture by native authors (1997 and after) 5310 VERBAL ARTS Fiction about the culture by native authors (before 1997) 538 LITERATURE 119 ARTIFACT AND ARCHIVE COLLECTIONS Information on artifact and archive collections including the location of museums, private collections, and archives housing significant collections of materials on the culture, ethnic group, or prehistoric tradition that is the subject of the file. This category was introduced in 1997. Information on artifact and archive collections indexed before 1997 113 INFORMATION SOURCES LISTED IN OTHER WORKS Prehistory 172 PREHISTORY Visual arts 5311 VISUAL ARTS 120 RESEARCH METHODS These subject headings are used to index descriptions and discussions of methods used by ethnographers, archaeologists, and others. Category 120 includes general statements about factors affecting the consistency, reliability, and validity of the data obtained. For information on specific factors regarding reliability, consistency, and validity in the use of specific techniques or methods use the appropriate categories. This term replaced "METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH" in 2000. 121 THEORETICAL ORIENTATION IN RESEARCH AND ITS RESULTS Research aims and objectives (e.g., complete ethnographic description, study of a particular institution or culture complex, testing of a theoretical hypothesis); general theoretical approach (e.g., historical, functional, psychological); formulation of research program; reasons for choice of particular field site or archaeological site; theoretical results; etc. Research strategy employed (e.g., ethnographic, survey, excavation, museographic, ethnoarcheological investigation), etc. This term replaced "THEORETICAL ORIENTATION" in 1997. The description was updated in 2000. 122 PRACTICAL PREPARATIONS IN CONDUCTING FIELDWORK Source(s) of financial support (expedition expenses, cost of publishing results, etc.); selection and assembly of equipment; coping with problems of transportation and bureaucratic red tape; familiarization with previous descriptive literature; learning language; living conditions in the field; etc. This term replaced "PRACTICAL PREPARATIONS" in 1997. 123 OBSERVATIONAL ROLE IN RESEARCH Techniques for establishing rapport; assumption or ascription of a status in the community; methods of altering the observer's status; adoption of the technique of participant observation; degree of participation in community life actually achieved; effect of the observer's presence on the life of the community; effects of the gender of the observer; observer's reflections on her or his feelings, attitudes, or intellectual development inspired by fieldwork; etc. This term replaced "OBSERVATIONAL ROLE" in 1997. Gender roles and issues 890 GENDER ROLES AND ISSUES 124 INTERVIEWING IN RESEARCH Methods of selecting informants or subjects (e.g., sampling); use of native language; use and selection of interpreters; methods of checking and rewarding informants and interpreters; group interviewing; methods of interviewing (e.g., question and answer, nondirective, use of topical outlines); special techniques (e.g., life history, genealogical, event centered, oral history); use of documents prepared by informants; etc. This term replaced "INTERVIEWING" in 1997. Informants 115 INFORMANTS 125 TESTS AND SCHEDULES ADMINISTERED IN THE FIELD Description of tests used (e.g., intelligence, projective); schedules and questionnaires employed (e.g., preparation, pretesting); administration of tests, schedules, and questionnaires; sampling techniques; methods of scoring; use of control groups; special experiments; census-taking by author; blood-typing; etc. This term replaced "TESTS AND SCHEDULES" in 1997. Results of personality tests 159 LIFE HISTORY MATERIALS Results of tests of sensation and perception 151 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Results of blood-typing tests 143 GENETICS Results of personality tests 157 PERSONALITY TRAITS Results of aptitude and intelligence tests 153 MODIFICATION OF BEHAVIOR 126 RECORDING AND COLLECTING IN THE FIELD Methods of note taking (e.g., verbatim, post-interview summaries); taking of native texts; use of diaries and journals; utilization of sound and photographic equipment; preparation of sketches, charts, and maps; collection of artifacts and field specimens; etc.; archaeological data recording methods (e.g., daily records, unit records, locus records, lot records, stratigraphic methods, feature records); collection of artifacts, ecofacts, and features, etc. This term replaced "RECORDING AND COLLECTING" in 1997. Artifact and archive collections 119 ARTIFACT AND ARCHIVE COLLECTIONS Field data 117 FIELD DATA 127 HISTORICAL AND ARCHIVAL RESEARCH Extent to which field research was supplemented or replaced by the use of records; types of records utilized (e.g., archives, archaeological remains, unpublished documents, museum collections, census data, literary sources, earlier published materials); techniques of analysis and criticism applied in assessing source materials; etc. This term replaced "HISTORICAL RESEARCH" in 1997. Prehistory 172 PREHISTORY Field data 117 FIELD DATA Artifact and archive collections 119 ARTIFACT AND ARCHIVE COLLECTIONS Oral history techniques 124 INTERVIEWING IN RESEARCH History 170 128 ORGANIZATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS OF RESEARCH Identification of material; methods of processing raw data (e.g., analysis, classification, quantification); special techniques of analysis (e.g., phonemic, sociometric); preparation of tables and graphs; methods of determining consistency, reliability, and validity of results (e.g., statistical, use of ratings and scales); organization of materials for presentation in published form: author's discussion of her or his organization of the source; data classification methods used including information on developing systems for the formal description and classification of archaeological and material culture data; archaeological reconstruction and other laboratory (except for scientific analysis) activities such as cleaning, cataloging, etc. of artifacts and other remains; artifact reconstruction; general discussion of how inferences about cultural behavior are drawn from the archaeological record, etc.; methods of quantification used in analyzing archaeological materials such as composition analysis (e.g., histograms, diagrams, scalograms, and dendrograms), spatial distribution (e.g., cartography), factor analysis, multiple regression, etc. This term replaced "ORGANIZATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS" in 1997. Description was updated in 2000. Research aims 121 THEORETICAL ORIENTATION IN RESEARCH AND ITS RESULTS Orthographies and transliteration systems 104 GLOSSARY Field data 117 FIELD DATA Typologies and classifications 914 TYPOLOGIES AND CLASSIFICATIONS 129 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY METHODS This category is used to index statements on archaeological survey methods such as thermography, electricity, magnetism, radio waves, etc.; sampling techniques; methods of determining site location, extent, occupation periods, etc. Use of non-invasive techniques such as remote sensing, aerial imaging, etc. This term was introduced in 1997. 1210 ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION METHODS This category is used to index statements on archaeological excavation methods (e.g., Wheeler-Kenyon method, block method); what type of tools were used during excavation; whether strata were excavated in natural or arbitrary levels; whether the soil was screened, and if so, what size mesh was used; whether soil samples were taken for specialized analysis, etc. This term was introduced in 1997. The description was rewritten completely in 2000. Cultural stratigraphy 912 CULTURAL STRATIGRAPHY Profile drawings, and other drawings of a unit, trench, strata, etc. 102 MAPS 1211 DATING METHODS IN ARCHAEOLOGY Statements about how an archaeological site, unit, stratum, or non-artifactual constituent, etc. was dated and what methods were used (absolute versus relative dating, Carbon-14, thermoluminescence, archaeomagnetism, obsidian hydration, etc.), This category is used to index discussions about what was used for the sample (that is, what was dated), how the sample was extracted in the field, where the sample was processed, and how the sample was processed. This term was introduced in 1997. The description was rewritten completely in 2000. 1212 LABORATORY ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS OTHER THAN DATING METHODS IN ARCHAEOLOGY Descriptions of archaeological laboratory methods including physiochemical analysis methods in archaeology such as X-ray spectrometry, neutron activation of trace elements, mineralogy, and palynology; how and where the artifacts and non-artifactual constituents were processed once they were excavated; techniques and equipment used; problems encountered, etc. This category includes descriptions of methods used to analyze faunal and floral remains for archaeological and non-archaeological purposes (e.g., analysis of plants for their pharmacological properties, shellfish analysis, laboratory analyses for ethnographic studies not found elsewhere, etc. This term was introduced in 1997. The description was rewritten completely in 2000. 1213 COMPARATIVE DATA Used to index descriptions of experimental archaeology, ethnoarchaeology, or any other technique that includes reconstruction or observation of technologies or activities of peoples of the past or present (e.g., skinning a deer with stone tools, making stone tools or weapons), etc. Introduced in 2000. Special experiments in the field 125 TESTS AND SCHEDULES ADMINISTERED IN THE FIELD Reconstruction of artifacts 128 ORGANIZATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS OF RESEARCH Archaeological site reconstruction 174 HISTORICAL RECONSTRUCTION Participation of the author in an ethnic culture 123 OBSERVATIONAL ROLE IN RESEARCH 130 GEOGRAPHY This category is used to index descriptions and analyses of the archaeological or present environment, including observations about change over time in the environment. Ideas about natural phenomena 820 131 LOCATION Information on the location of the culture or archaeological tradition including latitude and longitude; position in relation to land and sea (e.g., insular, coastal, interior); area and extent of territory occupied, accessibility by land and sea routes; boundaries; etc. Location of group in relation to others 101 IDENTIFICATION Maps 102 MAPS Territorial organization 630 132 CLIMATE Information on the type of climate; seasons (e.g., number, dates, character); temperature (e.g., annual mean, extreme range, daily and seasonal variations); precipitation (e.g., mean annual rainfall, seasonal distribution, snowfall); humidity; frosts; winds (e g., prevailing winds, cyclonic storms); etc. Occurrence of significant climatic changes, fluctuations, etc. Beliefs about heat and cold 374 HEAT Meteorological research and weather stations 654 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Occurrence and impact on society of devastating storms 731 DISASTERS Ethnometeorology 821 ETHNOMETEOROLOGY 133 TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY Information on topography and geology such as altitude above sea level; relief (e.g., hills, mountains. plateaus, passes); bodies of water (e.g., lakes, rivers, arms of the sea, swamps); subsurface water; character of seacoast and adjacent marine floor; tides and currents floods; areas of volcanic and seismic activity; etc. Ethnogeography 823 ETHNOGEOGRAPHY Occurrence and impact of seismic and volcanic disasters 731 DISASTERS Water supply 312 WATER SUPPLY Routes 487 ROUTES Land transport 490 Water transport 500 134 SOIL General information on physical and chemical characteristics of the soil and changes over time as reflected in the soil; erosion; soil types and soil fertility; area susceptible of cultivation (e.g., by local methods, by modern scientific methods); etc. Stratigraphic changes based on human activity 912 CULTURAL STRATIGRAPHY Soil science 242 AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE Land use 311 LAND USE 135 MINERAL RESOURCES General information on the availability or significant lack of mineral deposits (e.g., metals, stone, coal, petroleum, clay, salt); quantity, quality, and distribution of minerals; etc. Metallurgy 325 METALLURGY Petroleum and coal products industries 382 PETROLEUM AND COAL PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES Exploitation of mineral resources 316 Salt manufacture 258 MISCELLANEOUS FOOD PROCESSING AND PACKING INDUSTRIES 136 FAUNA Information on the principal native species, especially mammals, reptiles, birds, fish and shellfish, insects, and micro-fauna including in the paleoenvironment; historical changes (e.g., introduced species); general statements about faunal remains in archaeological reports; etc. Description updated in 2000. Ethnozoology 825 ETHNOZOOLOGY Hunting, fowling, and fishing 220 Animal husbandry 230 137 FLORA Information on the general type of flora (e.g., jungle, equatorial forest, tropical scrub, savanna, desert, steppe, prairie, deciduous forest, coniferous forest, tundra); types of wood; important species of land and marine flora including in the paleoenvironment; historical changes (e.g., introduced species); micro-flora; general statements about botanical remains in archaeological reports; etc. Description updated in 2000. Ethnobotany 824 ETHNOBOTANY Collecting of edible plants 222 COLLECTING Cultivated plants 240 Cultivated plants 241 TILLAGE 138 POST DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES Discussions of how an archaeological site, its cultural strata, and its artifacts and non-artifactual constituents were affected by the natural and cultural environment after being deposited and before being excavated. These processes include erosion, floods, animal use of the site such as pack rat middens or animal burrows, taphonomic processes not discussed elsewhere, looting of the site, human disturbances of the site and its artifacts, and differential preservation of artifacts and non-artifactual constituents. This term was introduced in 1997. The description was updated in 2000. 140 HUMAN BIOLOGY General statements dealing with several types of scientific biological data about the members of the society. Occurrence and distribution of biological characteristics will be included in the narrower terms of this category. Popular beliefs about the human organism 820 141 ANTHROPOMETRY Mean, range, and sex distribution of physical measurements (e.g., stature, weight, span, length of limbs); indices (e.g., cephalic, nasal); metric and non-metric traits; etc. Postures 516 POSTURES Conception of ideal bodily proportions 826 ETHNOANATOMY 142 DESCRIPTIVE SOMATOLOGY Color of skin, hair, and eyes; form, length, and distribution of hair; musculature; secondary sexual characteristics; physical descriptions; etc. 143 GENETICS Information on genetic characteristics of the population (e.g., blood groups; incidence of sex-linked characteristics (e.g., color blindness, hemophilia); other data of specific genetic significance; indicated affiliation with other extinct or extant populations; etc. Notions about heredity 827 ETHNOPHYSIOLOGY 144 RACIAL IDENTIFICATION Statements about affiliation with races and subraces; supporting evidence; extent of race mixture; etc. Distribution of ethnic groups 162 COMPOSITION OF POPULATION Ideas about race 829 ETHNOSOCIOLOGY Ethnic stratification and status of racial hybrids 563 ETHNIC STRATIFICATION 145 ONTOGENETIC DATA Data relating to physical growth and mental development during infancy and childhood; eruption of teeth; age at puberty for each sex; age at menopause and onset of senile impotence; characteristics of menstruation and menopause; physical senescence; etc. Adolescence, adulthood and old age 880 Development and maturation during infancy and childhood 856 DEVELOPMENT AND MATURATION Menstruation 841 MENSTRUATION 146 NUTRITION Information on nutrition including evidence of malnutrition and/or dietary deficiencies; adequacy of the diet of subgroups and of the population as a whole; chemical analyses of native foods; etc. Customary diets 262 DIET Infant feeding 853 INFANT FEEDING Morbidity 164 MORBIDITY Research in nutrition 742 MEDICAL RESEARCH 147 PHYSIOLOGICAL DATA Information on physiological systems and their functions (e.g., cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, nervous, endocrine); metabolism; salt and water balance; indications of physiological stamina e.g., strength and endurance); characteristic body odor; etc. Sexual behavior 830 Drives and emotions 152 DRIVES AND EMOTIONS Sensation and perception 151 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Physical deformities 732 DISABILITIES Occurrence of genetic traits 143 GENETICS Native ideas about physiology 827 ETHNOPHYSIOLOGY Menstruation 841 MENSTRUATION Incidence of disease 164 MORBIDITY 150 BEHAVIOR PROCESSES AND PERSONALITY This category contains general statements dealing with several distinct types of mechanisms and manifestations of individual behavior and personality as these appear to the observer and the scientist. Education 870 Laypersons' ideas about behavior and personality 828 ETHNOPSYCHOLOGY Socialization 560 151 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION This category includes information on acuity of vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch (e.g., uncontrolled observations, reports of tests); evidence on sensory discrimination and perception (e.g., form configurations, color perception, optical illusions, tone discrimination); data on the cultural patterning of perception; etc. Information on blindness, deafness, paralysis, and other disabilities 732 DISABILITIES Use of perfumes 302 TOILET Visual arts 5311 VISUAL ARTS Painting and sculpture 532 REPRESENTATIVE ART Optical instruments 416 APPLIANCES Rhythm in dancing 535 DANCE Decorative arts 531 DECORATIVE ART Musical appreciation 533 MUSIC Ideas about form, color, and sound 822 ETHNOPHYSICS Food preferences 262 DIET Ideas about heat and cold perception 374 HEAT Standards of sensory apprehension 828 ETHNOPSYCHOLOGY 152 DRIVES AND EMOTIONS Information on the nature and intensity of basic impulses or drives (e.g., hunger, thirst, need for oxygen, sex, urination, defecation, pain, heat and cold discomfort, fatigue); information pertaining to the Data on the incidence and quality of derived drives and emotions (e.g., aggression, anger, hate, jealousy, fear, anxiety, depression, grief, disgust, homesickness, love, sympathy, elation, excitement, mirth, curiosity, greed, ambition, vanity, inferiority); expression and control of emotions (e.g., stoicism); etc. Emotional reactions in religion 781 RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE Expressions of emotions through gestures 201 GESTURES AND SIGNS Recreation 520 Sleep and elimination 510 Hunger 261 GRATIFICATION AND CONTROL OF HUNGER Behavior under the influence of drugs 276 RECREATIONAL AND NON-THERAPEUTIC DRUGS Profanity 195 SOCIOLINGUISTICS Ornament and body alteration 300 Sexuality 831 SEXUALITY Socialization of impulses 860 Thirst and narcotic cravings 270 Recurrent personality traits 157 PERSONALITY TRAITS Labor and leisure 461 LABOR AND LEISURE Motives for waging war 721 INSTIGATION OF WAR Thirst 271 WATER AND THIRST Expressions of antagonism 578 INGROUP ANTAGONISMS Leisure time activities 517 LEISURE TIME ACTIVITIES Legal offenses 680 153 MODIFICATION OF BEHAVIOR Specific information concerning the mechanisms of conditioning and habit formation (e.g., conditioned and unconditional stimuli; configurations, response hierarchy, random behavior, positive and negative reinforcement, generalization, discrimination, anticipation); data on types of problem solution (e.g., trial and error, insight or intelligence, imitation); evidence as to special mechanisms in verbal or symbolic learning; results of aptitude and intelligence tests; data bearing upon conscious mental processes (e.g., memory, judgment, reasoning, conation, reactions in emergencies); etc. Attitudes 208 PUBLIC OPINION Ethnopsychology 828 ETHNOPSYCHOLOGY Culture change 170 Logic 811 LOGIC Techniques of socialization 861 TEChnIQUES OF SOCIALIZATION Educational methods 876 EDUCATIONAL THEORY AND METHODS Social control, as a means of enforcing behavior 626 SOCIAL CONTROL 154 ADJUSTMENT PROCESSES Information on the incidence, nature and cultural patterning of unconscious mental processes (e.g., free association, dreaming, fantasy, visions, inspiration, intuition); modes of resolving situations involving conflict, frustration, and anxiety; observations and inferences concerning adjustment mechanisms (e.g., repression, regression, displacement, projection, introjection, identification); etc. Vision quests 787 REVELATION AND DIVINATION Dream interpretation 755 MAGICAL AND MENTAL THERAPY Rationalization 811 LOGIC In-group antagonisms 578 INGROUP ANTAGONISMS Sorcery 754 SORCERY 155 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Evidences and inferences concerning the influence of constitutional factors, of physiological strains, and of social pressures and physical environment on the development of personality; psychological and psychoanalytic interpretations of personality formation under particular sociocultural conditions; evidence as to levels of personality development (e.g., anal, oral); etc. Sex 830 Adolescent problems 883 ADOLESCENT ACTIVITIES Family relationships 593 FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS Legal sanctions 681 SANCTIONS Social control 626 SOCIAL CONTROL Socialization 860 Infancy and childhood 850 156 SOCIAL PERSONALITY Conception of the self in relation to others; enhancement and defense of the self; social participation and isolation; individual roles in relation to culturally defined statuses; interpretations of personality as reflecting social norms; conformity; etc. Occupational specialization 463 OCCUPATIONAL SPECIALIZATION Kinship statuses 602 KIN RELATIONSHIPS Social status and mobility 550 Social control 626 SOCIAL CONTROL Cultural definition of the self 828 ETHNOPSYCHOLOGY Proxemics 209 PROXEMICS Social relationships and groups 571 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS AND GROUPS Social stratification 560 157 PERSONALITY TRAITS Occurrence of idiosyncratic habits (e.g., biting of lips or nails, twiddling of thumbs, wringing of hands); prevalence of cooperativeness and competitiveness; incidence and distribution of recurrent personality traits (e.g., leadership, submissiveness, aggressiveness); incidence and distribution of recognized types of personality (e.g., introvert, extrovert, obsessional, manic, paranoid, hypochondriac); generalized results of personality tests; and indications of cultural selectivity with reference to personality traits and types; evidence bearing upon the existence of a modal or basic personality; etc. Mutual aid and competition 470 Humor 522 HUMOR Statuses adapted to particular personality types 554 STATUS, ROLE, AND PRESTIGE Patterned expressions of emotion 201 GESTURES AND SIGNS Social mobility 550 Ethnopsychology 828 ETHNOPSYCHOLOGY Social interaction rates 571 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS AND GROUPS Attitudes 208 PUBLIC OPINION Postures 516 POSTURES National character and ethos 181 ETHOS Types of religious experience 781 RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE Derived drives and emotions 152 DRIVES AND EMOTIONS 158 PERSONALITY DISORDERS Incidence and distribution of hypertension and of symptoms of neurotic or functional disorders (e.g., hysteria, hypochondria, compulsive behavior, generalized anxiety), of motor disturbances (e.g., tics, stammering), of dissociative behavior (e.g., amnesia, somnambulism), of hallucinations and delusions, of manias (e.g., kleptomania, pyromania), of sadistic and masochistic behavior, of addiction (e.g., to drugs or alcohol), and of severe psychic disturbances (e.g., phobias, manic-depressive psychoses, involutional melancholia, schizophrenia); psychiatric interpretations of mental disorders; etc. Socialization 860 Crimes, torts, and sins 673 WRONGS Sexual perversions 830 Delinquency 738 DELINQUENCY Alcoholism and drug addiction 733 ALCOHOLISM AND DRUG ADDICTION Feeblemindedness 732 DISABILITIES Ideas about abnormal mental states 828 ETHNOPSYCHOLOGY Incidence of organic disease 164 MORBIDITY Conception of conscience 577 ETHICS Religious trances 787 REVELATION AND DIVINATION Suicide 762 SUICIDE Care of the insane 758 MEDICAL CARE Adolescent problems 883 ADOLESCENT ACTIVITIES Delinquency 674 CRIME Psychotherapy 755 MAGICAL AND MENTAL THERAPY Insane asylums 734 INVALIDISM 159 LIFE HISTORY MATERIALS Observations and interpretations of individual behavior, character, and personality; clinical analyses; case records; biographical materials; collections and interpretations of individual dreams, results of tests designed to measure acquired behavior or personality (e.g., tests of motor or verbal skills, projective tests); etc. Generalizations or conclusions relating to groups or classes of individuals will be filed elsewhere under appropriate headings. Types of religious experience 781 RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE Unclassified field data 117 FIELD DATA Socialization 860 Sex 830 Offenses and sanctions 680 Description of tests and schedules 125 TESTS AND SCHEDULES ADMINISTERED IN THE FIELD Dependency 736 DEPENDENCY Data on informants 115 INFORMANTS Avenues of individual achievement 554 STATUS, ROLE, AND PRESTIGE Biographies 5310 VERBAL ARTS Biographies 538 LITERATURE Interpretations of dreams 787 REVELATION AND DIVINATION 160 DEMOGRAPHY This category contains general statements covering several distinct types of information on population, including vital statistics. Detailed information will be found in the narrower terms. 161 POPULATION This category includes enumerations and estimates (with dates); density (e.g., arithmetical, for arable land); population trends; etc. Census taking 659 MISCELLANEOUS GOVERNMENT ACTIVITIES Population policy 168 POPULATION POLICY 162 COMPOSITION OF POPULATION Information on the distribution of population by age, sex, locality, marital status, mode of life (e.g., rural and urban, nomadic and sedentary), and by social groupings (e.g., occupation, religion, class, ethnic group); size of families; etc. Location and distribution of settlements 361 SETTLEMENT PATTERNS Literacy 212 WRITING Marriage statistics 595 POLYGAMY Crime statistics 674 CRIME Incidence of disabilities, chronic illness, poverty, etc. 730 Education statistics 871 EDUCATION SYSTEM Community population 621 COMMUNITY STRUCTURE Age stratification 561 AGE STRATIFICATION Occupational specialization 463 OCCUPATIONAL SPECIALIZATION Urban and rural differentiation 369 URBAN AND RURAL LIFE Age at marriage 582 REGULATION OF MARRIAGE Ethnic stratification 563 ETHNIC STRATIFICATION 163 BIRTH STATISTICS Data on birth rates; distribution of births (e.g., by season, locality, race, sex, occupation); incidence of stillbirths and multiple births; age of parents at birth of first child; spacing of children; number of children per completed family; etc. Incidence of illegitimacy 848 ILLEGITIMACY Fertility and sterility rates 842 CONCEPTION Fertility and sterility rates 844 CHILDBIRTH 164 MORBIDITY Incidence, nature, and distribution of various diseases and accidents (e.g., by location, season, sex, age, occupation); occurrence of epidemics; evidence of immunity or susceptibility to disease; dental ailments; etc. Care of infants and children 850 Morbidity as a social problem 730 Theory and treatment of disease 750 Malnutrition and dietary deficiencies 146 NUTRITION Incidence of neuroses and psychoses 158 PERSONALITY DISORDERS Public health 744 PUBLIC HEALTH AND SANITATION 165 MORTALITY Death rates (crude and corrected); infant and maternal mortality; distribution of deaths (e.g., by cause, season, age, occupation, locality); life expectancy; authentic cases of extreme longevity; prevalent causes of death (e.g., illness, accident, old age); etc. Infanticide and abortion 847 ABORTION AND INFANTICIDE Mortality in warfare 727 AFTERMATH OF COMBAT Suicide 762 SUICIDE Homicide 682 OFFENSES AGAINST LIFE 166 INTERNAL MIGRATION Temporary and/or permanent shifting of residence between communities and districts within the society; organized resettlement; trends toward redistribution of the population; restrictive regulation; etc. Degree of permanence or impermanence of settlements 361 SETTLEMENT PATTERNS Rule of residence in marriage 591 RESIDENCE Travel 484 TRAVEL Seasonal migrations 221 ANNUAL CYCLE 167 EXTERNAL MIGRATION Permanent and/or temporary movement to or from another culture or tradition; immigration and emigration; extent and sources of immigration; extent and destination of emigration; reasons for migration; trends; restrictive regulation; colonization; etc. Colonial dependencies 636 DEPENDENCIES Transplantation of conquered populations 728 PEACEMAKING Prehistoric migrations 174 HISTORICAL RECONSTRUCTION Slave trade 567 SLAVERY Naturalization 641 CITIZENSHIP Ethnic stratification 563 ETHNIC STRATIFICATION Travel 484 TRAVEL 168 POPULATION POLICY Theories and attitudes relating to the control of population; measures designed to stimulate or limit population growth; concepts of optimum population; etc. Marriage regulation 582 REGULATION OF MARRIAGE Human sacrifice 782 PRAYERS AND SACRIFICES Living standards 511 STANDARD OF LIVING Specific data on cannibalism 266 CANNIBALISM Sterilization of disabled 732 DISABILITIES Land utilization 311 LAND USE Care of the sick and injured 734 INVALIDISM Capital punishment 681 SANCTIONS Care of the sick and injured 758 MEDICAL CARE Birth control 842 CONCEPTION Care of the sick, injured, dependent, etc. 730 Abortion and infanticide 847 ABORTION AND INFANTICIDE Child care 855 CHILD CARE Celibacy 589 CELIBACY Castration 304 BODY ALTERATIONS Abortion and infanticide 848 ILLEGITIMACY 170 HISTORY AND CULTURE CHANGE General statements dealing with several specific types of information on history and culture change. Since separate files will be prepared on each major historical period for societies with an appreciable known time depth, the narrower terms are designed to include only (a) information bearing upon the society's prehistory and (b) historical data for the specific time period which do not readily fall into particular categories elsewhere in this thesaurus. 171 COMPARATIVE EVIDENCE Occurrence of similar culture traits in other societies; inferences from trait distributions; cultural comparisons, etc. Distribution of biological traits 140 HUMAN BIOLOGY Distribution of biological traits 140 Linguistic relationships 197 LINGUISTIC IDENTIFICATION Affiliation with particular culture areas or subareas 101 IDENTIFICATION 172 PREHISTORY This category is used to index only brief synopses of prehistoric sequences or summaries thereof. Prehistoric culture sequences and chronology; archaeological supplementation of the historical record; evidence from epigraphy; historical inferences from archaeological data; brief descriptions about the time periods or dates of archaeological sites or artifacts; etc. The description of this category was rewritten in 2000. Archaeology as a discipline (in the culture described) 814 HUMANISTIC STUDIES Diagnostic material attributes 107 DIAGNOSTIC MATERIAL ATTRIBUTES Archaeological syntheses 918 Archaeological syntheses 910 Archaeological methods 120 Artifact and archive collections as used by the researcher 113 INFORMATION SOURCES LISTED IN OTHER WORKS Artifact and archive collections of the culture described 217 ARCHIVES Artifact and archive collections as used by the researcher 119 ARTIFACT AND ARCHIVE COLLECTIONS 173 TRADITIONAL HISTORY Information on oral historical traditions and evidence as to their reliability; dynastic lists and genealogies; historical inferences from myth and tradition; etc. Historians and genealogists of the culture described 814 HUMANISTIC STUDIES Traditions of kin groups 610 Texts 539 LITERARY TEXTS Oral history techniques used in fieldwork 124 INTERVIEWING IN RESEARCH Kinship genealogies 601 KINSHIP TERMINOLOGY Mythology 773 MYTHOLOGY Dynastic rule 643 CHIEF EXECUTIVE Texts 900 Ethnosociology 829 ETHNOSOCIOLOGY 174 HISTORICAL RECONSTRUCTION Inferences as to origins, migrations, contacts, prehistory, and culture history from various types of evidence (e.g., anthropometry and language), but excluding written documents; etc. Historical research (by the culture described) 815 SCIENCE Historical research 814 HUMANISTIC STUDIES 175 HISTORY Data on the history of the culture or ethnic group that is derived from written sources (e.g., chronicles, reports of travelers, official records and documents) and their interpretation; evidence and inferences about prehistoric and historic events from such sources; ethnohistory; summaries of historical development; specific historical information pertinent to an understanding of culture change; etc This category was called "Recorded History" until 1997. Records 210 Texts 900 Texts 539 LITERARY TEXTS Historiography (by the culture described) 814 HUMANISTIC STUDIES 176 INNOVATION Analyses or general summaries of discoveries and inventions originating within the cultural group; factors involved (e.g., accident, genius, cultural base); number, range, and frequency of innovations, inventors and innovators; etc. This category is for discussions of innovation and inventions in general. For information on specific inventions, see the category appropriate to the specific subject. Patents and copyrights 424 INCORPOREAL PROPERTY 177 ACCULTURATION AND CULTURE CONTACT This category is used to index information on contacts and encounters (either casual or formal) with people of other cultures. The category includes information on the number, character, and intensity of these contacts; receptivity to other customs and materials/technology; borrowing from other cultures; modification of introduced elements; agencies and agents of culture change; forced assimilation by colonial governments or others such as missionaries, charitable organizations; brokers of culture change such as traders; cultural appropriation through such mechanisms as academic analyses of cultural behavior and customs, literacy programs; etc. Colonial administration (by the culture described) 636 DEPENDENCIES Loan words 192 VOCABULARY Ethnic stratification 563 ETHNIC STRATIFICATION Inter-ethnic relations 629 INTER-ETHNIC RELATIONS Immigration 167 EXTERNAL MIGRATION Trade 439 FOREIGN TRADE Missions 797 MISSIONS International relations 648 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 178 SOCIOCULTURAL TRENDS Changes in fundamental underlying conditions; linear trends (e.g., cultural drift); cyclical trends (e.g., fashions and vogues); dynamic processes (e.g., integration, selective elimination, cultural evolution); evidence of cultural lag; evidence of cultural continuity or stability; etc. Demographic trends 162 COMPOSITION OF POPULATION Political movements 668 POLITICAL MOVEMENTS Linguistic drift 197 LINGUISTIC IDENTIFICATION Clothing fashions 291 NORMAL GARB Demographic trends 161 POPULATION Trends in urban development 369 URBAN AND RURAL LIFE 179 ECONOMIC PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT Economic growth potentials, real and projected, of a territorial or political region (e.g., community, town, city, etc.); actual and projected economic growth rates; regional planning programs; problems (e.g., underdevelopment); long and short term planning; commissions, agencies and boards entrusted with planning and development; coordination of urban, rural and national planning; priorities and goals (e.g., local, national and regional development, industrial development, agricultural development, etc.); leadership and personnel; cost and financing of programs; public and private investments; extent of governmental participation in planning and development programs; extent to which proposed programs reflect the needs of the regional unit; developmental strategies; results; etc. For more specific information on planning and development, see relevant topical categories. Social planning 185 CULTURAL GOALS Public utilities 365 PUBLIC UTILITIES Parks 367 PARKS Miscellaneous facilities 368 MISCELLANEOUS FACILITIES Philanthropic foundations 741 PHILANTHROPIC FOUNDATIONS Land use 311 LAND USE General statements on economic planning and development 433 PRODUCTION AND SUPPLY Political administrative or territorial units 630 Sociocultural trends 178 SOCIOCULTURAL TRENDS Housing 362 HOUSING Commercial facilities 366 COMMERCIAL FACILITIES Statistics on rural and urban populations 162 COMPOSITION OF POPULATION Government activities 650 Natural resources development 310 Agricultural development 240 Effects of urbanization on social institutions 369 URBAN AND RURAL LIFE Family planning 168 POPULATION POLICY Employment 464 LABOR SUPPLY AND EMPLOYMENT Community organization 621 COMMUNITY STRUCTURE Family planning 842 CONCEPTION City planning 361 SETTLEMENT PATTERNS Administrative agencies of the state 647 ADMINISTRATIVE AGENCIES Health and welfare 740 Environmental quality 318 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 1710 CULTURAL REVITALIZATION AND ETHNOGENESIS Ethnogenesis includes the processes of forming, maintaining, and reforming cultural identity. Ethnogenesis may result from depopulation, invasion, relocation, enslavement, genocide, or cultural revitalization. Ethnogenesis may occur when cultures from disparate groups combine to form new associations and new ways of life to create a new culture (such as the Seminole). In cultural revitalization the identity of a group is reconstituted and may include new or borrowed symbols and elements as well as elements from the past. Cultural revitalization may result from many causes or events. These causes or events may include the influence of a messianic religious movement such as the Ghost Dance in North America or being part of a larger culture that acknowledges the need for reparation of past wrongs, such as those mentioned above, and in which recognition of ethnic identity and pride in cultural heritage is encouraged. This category was developed in 2000. For information on these topics before this time see the cross-references. Cultural identity 186 CULTURAL IDENTITY AND PRIDE Ethnosociology 829 ETHNOSOCIOLOGY Nationalism 619 TRIBE AND NATION Revitalization movements 668 POLITICAL MOVEMENTS 180 TOTAL CULTURE Summary statements on the total culture as analyzed, interpreted, or described. The 180 categories are intended to include descriptive and interpretive materials which pertain to the entire culture or which override a number of more specific categories. Consequently much of the material pertinent to the individual topics below will be found only under other headings. 181 ETHOS General orientation of the culture; predominating interests, values, themes, and motivations; characterizations of the total culture (e.g., as "conservative," "competitive," "militaristic," "spirit-ridden," "Apollonian," "folk," "urban"); allegations and inferences as to national character; etc. General character of religion 771 GENERAL CHARACTER OF RELIGION Prevalent personality types 157 PERSONALITY TRAITS Cooperation and competition 470 Social philosophy 829 ETHNOSOCIOLOGY Ethics 577 ETHICS 182 FUNCTIONAL AND ADAPTATIONAL INTERPRETATIONS Internal cultural consistency or its lack; allegations of integration or disintegration; adjustments of parts of the culture to one another; adaptation of cultural forms to biological and social needs and to physical environment; environmental adjustment; etc. Functional integration of kinship systems 601 KINSHIP TERMINOLOGY Integrative process in culture change 178 SOCIOCULTURAL TRENDS 183 NORMS Native and scientific definitions of custom (e.g., as ideal patterns, as ranges of variation within limits, as statistical inductions from observed behavior); positive and negative norms (e.g., folkways, taboos); verbalized and covert norms; investment of norms with affect and symbolic value (e.g., mores, idealization); discrepancies between ideals and behavior; configurations of norms (e.g., culture complexes, institutions); etc. Legal norms 671 LEGAL NORMS Taboos 784 AVOIDANCE AND TABOO Attitudes 208 PUBLIC OPINION Transmission of social norms 867 TRANSMISSION OF CULTURAL NORMS Ethical ideals 577 ETHICS 184 CULTURAL PARTICIPATION Prevalence of "specialties" and "alternatives"; degree of proliferation of subcultures, intra-cultural differences, and special statuses; extent to which the entire culture is socially shared; etc. Ethnic stratification 563 ETHNIC STRATIFICATION Social stratification 560 Regional specialization in production 483 WEIGHT MOVING Individual roles within statuses 156 SOCIAL PERSONALITY Differences in standard of living 511 STANDARD OF LIVING Dialectic differentiation 197 LINGUISTIC IDENTIFICATION Ascribed and achievable statuses 554 STATUS, ROLE, AND PRESTIGE Urban and rural differences 369 URBAN AND RURAL LIFE Regional specialization in production 438 DOMESTIC TRADE Occupational specialization 463 OCCUPATIONAL SPECIALIZATION 185 CULTURAL GOALS Social foresight; concept of progress; reform movements and utopian goals; prevention of waste; social planning conservation policies; etc. Dynamics of culture change 178 SOCIOCULTURAL TRENDS Social philosophy 829 ETHNOSOCIOLOGY Social insurance 745 SOCIAL INSURANCE Saving and investment 454 SAVING AND INVESTMENT Political doctrines, policies and programs 668 POLITICAL MOVEMENTS Organization of production and distribution 470 Land reform 423 REAL PROPERTY Individual achievement 550 Economic planning and development 433 PRODUCTION AND SUPPLY Specific government projects 650 Population policy 168 POPULATION POLICY City planning 361 SETTLEMENT PATTERNS Economic planning and development 179 ECONOMIC PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT 186 CULTURAL IDENTITY AND PRIDE This category is used to index information on positive and negative attitudes towards one's own and other cultures and their expressions in behavior, customs, and cultural institutions (e.g., consciousness of kind, patriotism, nationalism); unfavorable judgments of other groups (e.g., prejudice, stereotyping, ethnocentrism, scapegoating, national antipathies); symbolic representation (e.g., flags, anthems, emblems, national figures/treasures). This category was rewritten in 1997. Military morale 703 DISCIPLINE AND MORALE Citizenship 641 CITIZENSHIP Ingroup antagonisms 578 INGROUP ANTAGONISMS Cultural revitalization and ethnogenesis 1710 CULTURAL REVITALIZATION AND ETHNOGENESIS Religious persecution 798 RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE Inter-ethnic relations 629 INTER-ETHNIC RELATIONS Prejudice and discrimination toward ethnic and other stratified groups 560 Political parties 665 POLITICAL PARTIES Nationalistic and nativistic movements 668 POLITICAL MOVEMENTS International relations 648 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Development of nationalism 619 TRIBE AND NATION Ideas about race 829 ETHNOSOCIOLOGY 190 LANGUAGE General statements dealing with various aspects of language. The categories below are devoted to the use and scientific analysis of language. Terminology pertinent to special aspects of culture will commonly be found only under appropriate topical headings elsewhere. For examples of native text and translations see categories "Literary Texts" (539) and "Texts" (900) Interlinear translations 903 INTERLINEAR TRANSLATIONS Native texts 901 TEXTS IN THE SPEAKER'S LANGUAGE Native texts and translations of texts 539 LITERARY TEXTS Translations of native texts 902 TEXTS TRANSLATED INTO ENGLISH 191 SPEECH Notions about language; standards of correctness; individual speech idiosyncrasies; ideas about speech impediments (e.g., stuttering); speech aids (e.g., megaphone); public address systems; bilingualism; etc. Oratory 537 ORATORY Writing 212 WRITING Vocal music 533 MUSIC Vituperation 578 INGROUP ANTAGONISMS Telephone 206 TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH Radio 207 RADIO AND TELEVISION Cursing 789 MAGIC Conversation 521 CONVERSATION Sound recording 216 SOUND RECORDS Acquisition of language 868 TRANSMISSION OF SKILLS 192 VOCABULARY Relative paucity or richness of vocabulary; range of vocabulary in ordinary use; receptivity to loan words; elaboration of vocabulary in particular directions; special vocabularies (e.g., sacred words, slang, legal language, technical words, occupational jargon; words and phrases with strong emotional connotations, dictionaries; etc. For native terms concerning ideas about nature and humans, see appropriate "Ideas about Nature and People" (820) categories. Names of animals and things 552 NAMES OF ANIMALS AND THINGS Native terms concerning ideas about nature and people 820 Kinship terms 601 KINSHIP TERMINOLOGY Numerals 802 NUMERATION Native terms for plants 824 ETHNOBOTANY Native terms for animals 825 ETHNOZOOLOGY Names of persons 551 PERSONAL NAMES Glossaries of native words frequently used in descriptive accounts 104 GLOSSARY Place names 103 PLACE NAMES 193 GRAMMAR Morpheme classes (e.g., roots, stems, affixes); morphological processes (e.g., prefixation, infixation, suffixation, reduplication, ablaut); word formation (i.e., composition, derivation, inflection); grammatical categories (e.g., number, gender, case, tense, mode, aspect, voice); degree of synthesis (e.g., analytic, synthetic, polysynthetic); morphological and syntactic word classes or 'parts of speech' (e.g., nouns, verbs); syntax (constructions; phrase and sentence structure; favorite sentence types); etc. Linguistic studies 814 HUMANISTIC STUDIES 194 PHONOLOGY Phonemic inventory (including suprasegmentals such as stress and pitch); articulation and allophony of phonemes; distribution of phonemes; morphophonemic adjustments; etc. Transliteration systems and orthography 104 GLOSSARY 195 SOCIOLINGUISTICS Differentiation in styles (e.g., conversational, narrative, rhetorical); stylistic modifications in phonology, grammar, and vocabulary; styles typed according to gender, age, status, and social context, euphemisms and metaphorical usages; profanity; etc. The name of this category was changed from "Stylistics" to "Sociolinguistics" in 1997. Word taboos 784 AVOIDANCE AND TABOO Poetic, oratorical, dramatic, and song styles 533 MUSIC Obscenity 831 SEXUALITY Poetic, oratorical, dramatic, and song styles 530 Etiquette 576 ETIQUETTE Curses and incantations 789 MAGIC Social stratification 560 196 SEMANTICS General problems of meaning and linguistic symbolism; semantics of morphological and lexical elements; affectual connotation (e.g., tone of voice, rapidity of delivery); multiple contextual definitions of words and phrases; semantic drift; etc. 197 LINGUISTIC IDENTIFICATION Dominant language or languages; affiliation with other languages and position within a linguistic stock or family; dialectal differentiation; comments on processes of linguistic change (e.g., sound change, borrowing, drift ); etc. Cultural affiliations 101 IDENTIFICATION Cultural affiliations 171 COMPARATIVE EVIDENCE Racial affiliations 144 RACIAL IDENTIFICATION 198 SPECIAL LANGUAGES This category is used to index information on true languages (e.g., creoles, American Sign Language) used by particular types of people (e.g., genders, occupations, social classes, the hearing impaired); and not fully developed languages such as pidgins; special adaptations of speech (e.g., yodeling, whistling, ventriloquism); etc. Drum languages 202 TRANSMISSION OF MESSAGES Writing 212 WRITING Sign languages 201 GESTURES AND SIGNS 200 COMMUNICATION General statements dealing with several aspects of communication over space. For communication over time by means of records 210