Adenike Adeyeye, Environmental Studies '07, Faculty Advisor - John Wargo (F&ES and Political Science)
An Assessment of Sanitation Improvement Projects and Community Response to Sanitation Education Programs: Batey Libertad, Dominican Republic

Christa Anderson, Environmental Studies '07, Faculty Advisor - Oswald Schmitz (F&ES)
People and Predators: Livestock Predation Program, Arusha, Tanzania

Gideon Bradburd, Biology (Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Track) '08, Faculty Advisors - Marta Wells (EEB) and Rick Prum (EEB)
Getting Field Experience: Ecological Study and Surveying the Birds of Surimane

Duncan Cheung, Environmental Studies '07, Faculty Advisor - John Wargo (F&ES and Political Science)
Urban Water Management in Beijing and Tianjin, China: Problems, Prospects, and Partnerships

Caitlin Clarke, Environmental Studies '07, Faculty Advisor - John Wargo (F&ES and Political Science)
The Politics of Oil Development and Conservation in Quito and Yasuni National Park, Ecuador

Sonia Cooke, Environmental Studies '08, Faculty Advisor - John Wargo (F&ES and Political Science)
The Future of Organic Viticulture in Italy and California

Samara Fox, Cognitive Science '09, Faculty Advisor - Timothy Robinson (English)
Azafady Madagascar Pioneer Program

Bjorn Fredrickson, Environmental Studies '07, Faculty Advisor - John Wargo (F&ES and Poltical Science)
Chinese Mega Dams and Forced Relocation; Yunnan, China

Michael Gold, Anthropology '07, Faculty Advisor - Marta Wells (EEB)
Internship, School of Renewable Energy Technology, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand

Jerry Guo, Biology '09, Faculty Advisor - Gisella Caccone (EEB)
Morphological and Genetic Diversity in the Giant Tortoise Populations on Santa Cruz, Galapagos Islands: Implications for Future Conservation Strategies

Allison Guy, Environmental Studies / Art '08, Faculty Advisor - John Wargo (F&ES and Political Science)
Sustainable Use and the Philippine NGO; Palawon, Philippines

Mark Havel, Biology (Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Track) '06, Faculty Advisor - Marta Wells (EEB)
School for Field Studies Summer Program, Turks & Caicos

Angel Hertslet, Undeclared '08, Faculty Advisor - Steven Stoll (History)
Experiencing the Exquisite Environment of Ecuador: International Education of Students Program, Quiti, Ecuador

John Hinkle, Biology (Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Track) '09, Faculty Advisors - Edward Kamens (East Asian Languages and Literature) and Marta Wells (EEB)
Marine Conservation of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef Ecosystem with Global Visions International at Pez Maya, Mexico

Margaret Howard, Environmental Studies '08, Faculty Advisor - Langdon Hammer (English)
Sustainable Living in the Atlantic Rainforest, Iracambi Research and Conservation Center, Brazil

Qazim Hyseni, Environmental Studies '07, Faculty Advisor - Gisella Caccone (EEB)
Amphibian Decline and Environmental Change: A Conservation Genetics Approach

Emily Jack-Scott, Environmental Studies '08, Faculty Advisor - Eric Worby (Anthropology)
Wildlife Research Marine Mammal Studies and Community Development in Kenya

Erin Lin, Environmental Studies / International Studies '07, Faculty Advisor - John Wargo (F&ES and Political Science)
Infrastructure Development in the Face of Urban Growth; Center for Khmer Studies, Cambodia

Jacob Marcus, Math or Political Science '08, Faculty Advisor - Julie Newman (Yale Office of Sustainability)
Sustainable Agriculture, Forestry and Environmental Education at Jatun Sacha's La Hesperia Biological Station, Toachi-Pilatio Forest in Ecuador

Tanya Martinez, Environmental Studies '07, Faculty Advisor - John Wargo (F&ES and Political Science)
Investigating Water Quality in Batey Libertad, Dominican Republic

John Mittermeier, Environmental Studies '08, Faculty Advisor - Rick Prum (EEB)
Building and Understanding of the Avifauna of Suriname

Ashley Roberts, Environmental Studies '07, Faculty Advisor - Mary Helen Goldsmith (MCDB)
Coalbed Methane Impacts on Wyoming Economy and Ecosystems

Katherine Rostkowski, Environmental Engineering '07, Faculty Advisor - William Mitch (Environmental Engineering)
Water Quality Solutions: From Training to Design and Implementation; Germany and El Rosario, Honduras

Betsy Scherzer, Environmental Engineering '07, Faculty Advisor - William Mitch (Environmental Engineering)
Adapting Environmental Law and Governmental Structures to Emerging Technologies; Internship with the Environmental Law Institute in Washington, D.C.

Mirko Serkovic, Environmental Studies '07, Faculty Advisor - John Wargo (F&ES and Political Science)
Challenging the Idea of Water Quality; The Ganges River, Varanasi, India

Mary Stoddard, Biology (Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Track) '08, Faculty Advisors - Leo Buss (EEB) and Rick Prum (EEB)
Tropical Biology Field Course in Costa Rica: Organization for Tropical Studies

Anastasha Swaba, Environmental Studies '07, Faculty Advisor - John Wargo (F&ES and Political Science)
Internship at the Office of Hawaiian Affairs to Investigate Issues of Land Tenure, Native Hawaii Rights, and the Environmental, Social, and Health Impacts of the Makua Valley Military Reservation

Micah Ziegler, Undeclared '08, Faculty Advisor - Amerigo Fabbri (Dean of Pierson College)
International Education of Students in Quito, Ecuador with Faculty of the University Of Quito and the Galapagos Academic Institute

Top   |   Student Research   |   Previous Year

An Assessment of Sanitation Improvement Projects and Community Response to Sanitation Education Programs: Batey Libertad, Dominican Republic
Adenike Adeyeye, Environmental Studies '07

With my Environmental Internship Program award, I was able to spend four weeks researching in Batey Libertad, Dominican Republic. A batey is a community comprised primarily of Haitian agricultural workers. Batey Libertad is considered a well-off batey because it has electricity and access to water from the surrounding mountains, but it still shares many of the same sanitation woes as other bateyes. My research focused on the community’s use of latrines and their disposal of garbage.

During my first visits to the batey, in February 2006, the community leader, Papito, told me that groups in the batey hold meetings for residents to teach them about trash disposal and latrine construction and use. These organizations are instrumental in making Batey Libertad a “well-off” batey, and I interviewed 4 members of either Organizacion de Trabajadores Haitianos (Organization of Haitian Workers or OTH) or Famn Vayan (Valiant Women) about the various programs they had started. Another important part of my project was interviewing ordinary residents to find out what they do with their trash and whether they have access to latrines. I surveyed 40 households, or roughly one-fifth of the batey. In order to make the survey random, Tanya Martinez and I mapped the batey and numbered all of the houses, and I interviewed at every fifth house. I asked people for biographical information, and then asked questions about their family’s latrine use, their trash disposal practices, and their level of participation in the programs offered by organizations such as OTH and Famn Vayan.

In my interviews, the majority of the people’s habits echoed what Papito had already shared with me: they use the weekly garbage truck to dispose of garbage, use a latrine that they either own or share, and have attended at least one program given by OTH, Famn Vayan, or other organizations. However, some of the people I answered had drastically different answers. They told me that they do not have access to latrines and do not use the garbage truck to dispose of their garbage. There are numerous reasons for not having access to a latrine: the owner of the home they rent did not provide a latrine, there was no space to construct one, the one they had was full, their latrine had been demolished to construct the newest community center, etc. Those without latrines use the bathroom out in the fields surrounding the batey or in an area by the river if it is too late at night to go into the fields. They throw their trash out either alongside the river or out in the fields. Many of them also responded that they had not attended any informational meetings, because they had not been invited.

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People and Predators: Livestock Predation Program, Arusha, Tanzania
Christa Anderson, Environmental Studies '07

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Getting Field Experience: Ecological Study and Surveying the Birds of Surimane
Gideon Bradburd, Biology (Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Track) '08

This summer, I traveled to Suriname as part of a small team from the Peabody Museum. Our mission was to perform a survey of the avifauna of two sites and bring back specimens that are either poorly or—until our trip—completely unrepresented in the Peabody’s collection.

The first site we surveyed was the Sipaliwini savannah, in the very southern tip of Suriname. There, we found many birds commonly found in the Brazilian cerrado, another savannah-like biome. The cerrado is found much farther south however, and is separated from the Sipaliwini by numerous other biomes. One important question raised by our collection is whether or not the populations of cerrado-specialists in Suriname are reproductively isolated from those in Brazil, and, if so, whether or not this genetic and environmental isolation has resulted in a textbook case of allopatric speciation. If this were the case, then several of the species we collected in Sipaliwini may end up being new species.

The second site was in the jungle at Werehpai, near the major Trio village of Kwamalasamutu. There, we were lucky enough to encounter an army ant swarm and we were able to collect many of the obligate army ant specialists—birds that follow the swarm and prey on the arthropods flushed by the horde of ants—which otherwise are very difficult to see.

We spent a total of thirty days collecting specimens in the field, netting and shooting during the day and preparing the birds by night. I personally prepared 70 birds, of which 30 were skins, 16 were skeletons, and 24 were preserved in alcohol. As a group, we brought back 276 specimens from 114 different species.

These specimens can now be used for comparison with other specimens in the United States and for any morphological studies scientists and students at Yale wish to perform. We preserved a tissue sample in alcohol from each bird we collected, so that a genetic analysis can also be carried out. In the long run, these specimens could be used by an artist to render illustrations for the first field guide to Suriname.

Another possible project that presented itself during our expedition was a study of the Blue Poison Dart frog (Dendrobates azureus), which is found only in a single mountain range in the Sipaliwini savannah. During our stay in Mamia Pakoro, the Amerindian outpost in the Sipaliwini, we established good relations with the two Trio caretakers (so much so that I was offered one’s daughter’s hand in marriage), and a return visit to study the range and diet of these rare creatures would be both fascinating and doable.

It was both exciting to learn new skills like how to set up mist nets, shoot, and prepare specimens, and gratifying to be able to add specimens to the very collection that inspired me to make the trip in the first place. Thank you so much for providing me with the means to enjoy such a wonderful summer.

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Urban Water Management in Beijing and Tianjin, China: Problems, Prospects, and Partnerships
Duncan Cheung, Environmental Studies '07

What I had originally planned:

Examine Beijing’s urban water management issues and develop a better sense of how public-private partnerships in the water sector can benefit major cities in China. The findings will be used to support my senior research project and possibly the master’s thesis.

What I did:

During the 6 weeks I was in Beijing, I completed two internships:

A. Water research for NRDC: The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) has exerted major influences on China’s energy policy and green building developments for the past decade. NRDC wished to expand its scope to the water sector, particularly in urban water efficiency and the energy efficiency associated with water infrastructures. I was responsible for carrying out the preliminary research on Beijing’s water and wastewater sectors. I conducted many interviews with the following interviewees include:
    1. an official (shall remain unnamed) in the Ministry of Construction in charge of writing provisions for water and wastewater treatment,
   2. an official at the State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) in charge of water pollution management,
   3. Mr. Liu, the Deputy Chief of the Chengdu Water Bureau, who is in charge of wastewater treatment,
   4. an official who was in charge of the operations of one of China’s model wastewater treatment plants in Chengdu
   5. Mr. Ma Jun who was a World Fellow at Yale 2 years ago and is now working on public participation networks for water pollution cases,
   6. Dr. Seth Cook who completed his doctoral work in rainwater harvesting in Gansu, China and is now the country representative of the IUCN,
   7. Dr. Eva Sternfeld who did her doctoral dissertation on Beijing’s water management system and is now a librarian at the China Environmental Sustainable Development Research and Reference Center (CESDRRC), arguably the largest environmental information database in the country,
   8. Dr. Zhou from the Beijing Industrial University who is a leading expert in the country in urban water network engineering and planning as well as software development in GIS systems for water systems,
   9. Dr. Fu and Dr. Chang at the Tsinghua University Water Policy Research Center (WPRC), the only water policy research center in the country.

Besides the interviews, I collected information at the CESDRRC for 3 days, twice visited the Beijing Water Museum (one of the three water museums in China), went to a wastewater treatment strategy conference in Chengdu hosted by the UC Berkeley Urban Sustainable Initiative, went to visit one of the country’s model wastewater treatment plants in Chengdu, and observed a close-door water sector strategic forum hosted by H20-China and Tsinghua University Department of Environmental Science and Engineering. The purpose of the forum was to allow the CEOs or Board of Directors of 10-20 major water corporations in China to discuss their strategies in response to the newest developments in the water sector especially to new policies.

B. Translation editor for Tsinghua Water Policy Research Center: The majority of my time was spent editing the translation of a book that will be published in December 2006 through the International Waters Association. The original Chinese version was published in the last week of August and it is China’s first book on the country’s water sector reform. It outlines the major phases China’s water sector has gone through and details 17 case studies on 14 Chinese cities. The authors also appraised in great depths the situation and prospects of China’s water sector in terms of legal framework, tariff structures, roles, responsibilities and rights of the government and different types of water managers. This book will be extremely valuable once published in English as it will serve as a foundation of knowledge of China’s urban water sector. I feel honored to participate in editing the translation. I fear that the subtleties hidden in the Chinese language as well as the political and cultural meanings in of some terms were not expressed wholly and accurately in the English language given my limited background and time.
The Professors who head the Tsinghua WPRC would like environmental policy to be available as a field of study in China. The Chinese education system does not allow much flexibility in the academic curriculum; opening a new major or concentration of study under this system would therefore be challenging. Besides teaching new courses on environmental infrastructure financing and public-private partnerships, the professors are trying to create an international network of scholars and institutes that will strengthen the field’s position in environmental studies. They are contemplating partnership with the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies in hopes to strengthen international presence and influence on Tsinghua’s students through exchange programs. They have asked me to be the liaison between Tsinghua and Yale at the end of my internship.

Major findings:

Thanks to Tsinghua WPRC, I was able to obtain plenty of unpublished data and information that will be crucial to my senior research paper. The following list of findings are some of the more fascinating results I have gathered from the books, interviews, visits to museums, treatment plants, and other exhibits, conferences, and electronic resources I accessed in China.

· China’s urban water reform has gone through 3-4 phases in the past 16 years. And the next phase will focus on performance/service optimization. This was not visible to me before I went to China because the information available outside of the country was extremely limited and there existed no background information or systematic explanations of China’s urban water reform.
· There could be little or no association between the ownership structure (public/private) of an urban water supply system and its performance.
· Most of China’s water distribution networks and water treatment plants are designed and built using a similar protocol by a few state-owned public utility design companies. Transaction costs are higher, and the designers do not necessarily have operation cost-effectiveness in mind. There are successful stories of water treatment plant projects being bided-for, designed, built, and operated by one water company being extremely cost-effective in Shenzhen and Macao. The government then plays the role of an enabler of the projects and a regulator of water quality and tariffs. The problem is that these design firms monopolize the water market by withholding essential information about the water system so that competitors cannot enter the water market in many cities in China.
· Water infrastructure development and city planning need to go hand-in-hand; this is not happening. Dr. Zhou from Beijing Industrial University is developing a comprehensive GIS software for water corporations and planning departments to integrate the planning and development of urban water systems. Having an extensive background on both the engineering of water distribution networks and GIS software development, Dr. Zhou is a leader in his field in the whole country and he is engineering state-of-the-art software programs (like an MS office for water managers) in his lab. This shows the infancy of the progression of the systematic planning and optimization of China’s urban water systems.
· The legal and policy structure of China do not take public participation into account; public pressure on service regulation and improvement has been virtually non-existent. There exists a very weak pressure on local governments to improve their service except for top-down command and control methods.
· China’s water sector market-oriented reform is very rushed compared to that in other countries. While on one hand this has led to the spawning of many kinds of financing models that had never appeared elsewhere in the world, it is also exerting an unprecedented amount of stress of the managerial and regulatory capacity of relevant government departments as well as water managers. The roles, responsibilities and rights of the stakeholders (the local government, lawmaking bodies, water operators, the users) are unclear.
· Sludge treatment and disposal can make up 20-50% of the cost of a wastewater treatment plant project. Energy consumption of the water pumps and wind turbines is another costly component.
· Foreign involvement in China’s urban water problems, whether it is carried through the vehicle of NGOs, developers, private enterprises, or other development agents need to carefully examine the situation of the local area (political, economic, cultural, societal, and environmental at the least) before they can develop context-specific projects. Participation in UC Berkeley’s Urban Sustainable Initiative conference made me realize once again how easy it is for an outside agent to declare that they have the best technologies in the world and that whatever they have observed in the brief 2 months of research can serve as the basis of their development projects. This attitude seems consistent with what I have learnt in Professor Cashore’s class on international environmental policy and governance where the developed world, with all its good intentions, impose development schemes on developing countries sometimes without adequate consideration of the local situation.

Personal reflection and next steps

· Prior language, cultural and political understandings were pivotal to my access of information in the research. Using my role as a student and being tactful in my tones and subtleties in body languages played to my advantage and enabled me to obtain information (sometimes even classified) and personal resources I would never have gained otherwise. My prior experience working inside a government agency for a year and interacting with Chinese researchers, students, officials, villagers, and the press taught me how I can use my identity and understanding of the political and cultural situations to earn maximum trust in a very short amount of time so that information and other resources would be automatically opened for me.
· I think it is more realistic to use my findings from China to develop a comparative study of the progression of water sector reforms across different countries than attempt to make a statement on China’s water sector. I can outline with the comparative study: which forms of public-private partnerships dominated in a certain country, why some models of private involvement worked effectively in some places and not others. What elements are China-specific and how they can contribute to the progression of the reform…etc.
· According to Professor Chang at the Tsinghua WPRC, the US may be a good model for China to use in water sector financing. The WPRC has a graduate student researching this topic. The advantage I would have if I were to investigate this further is that the resources on the US situation are far more abundant and accessible at Yale. My fluency in both languages and familiarity with China’s water situation will allow me to pursue this with great focus.

The internships were extremely valuable both to my personal growth and to the research I am embarking upon. I would only highly recommend this to all students who have extensive Chinese language, cultural background, political understanding, and environmental knowledge (better be a Chinese National who has spent at least a few years in China). Researching as a foreigner in China or a student who does not know “how things work” in political circles will yield the researcher shallow data and findings. The key to achieve good results in any researches in China starts with networking properly with the “right” people—this is partly the Chinese culture, and partly how China works as a country that has not gone through full institutionalization and systematic reform.

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The Politics of Oil Development and Conservation in Quito and Yasuni National Park, Ecuador
Caitlin Clarke, Environmental Studies '07

I used my summer grant from the Environmental Internship Program to travel to Ecuador, where I conducted research in anticipation of my senior essay. In 2005, with support from the Program, I interned in Washington, D.C. at an environmental group called Save America’s Forests, which works with the Waorani indigenous group of eastern Ecuador on issues related to oil exploitation and illegal logging on their territory. I was eager for the chance to see their land and the effects of oil development for myself, and I wanted to gain a better understanding of the ways in which the social and political structure of the local communities influences and is influenced by natural resource development.

The situation of the Waorani is by no means unique in the Amazon headwaters region. The Ecuadorian rainforest is home to a number of indigenous groups, of which the Waorani, who number about two thousand, are among the smallest. In the past, they have also been among the most isolated, feared by surrounding groups. As a result of their isolation, they were only contacted by outsiders in the 1940s, when Shell Oil began looking for new reserves under the 1.7 million hectares of land, now divided between Yasuní National Park (PNY) and the Waorani Ethnic Reserve, that comprises their ancestral territory.

Further oil exploration activities led to resettlement efforts, as many Waorani were led west out of the area that is now Yasuní. In the 1970s, Texaco, which was at the time the dominant oil operator in Ecuador, built a road south from the oil town of Coca deep into Waorani territory. Called the Via Auca, or “Road of Savages” (“auca” is the term by which the indigenous Quichua have called the Waorani), the road and the pipeline that runs along it have been responsible for major environmental damage. Waorani territory contains what may be the greatest array of biological diversity on the planet; it has been severely compromised by the road, oil activities, and subsequent colonization along the Via Auca, which has seen other Ecuadorians moving onto Waorani land to practice swidden agriculture.

When I arrived in Ecuador at the beginning of my five-week stay, the Brazilian national oil company, Petrobras, had just announced that it would use roadless drilling methods to extract oil from its concession, Block 31, in the heart of Yasuní National Park. This was the goal for which Save America’s Forests had been working during my tenure at the organization, and it means that the devastation visited on former primary rainforest by the Via Auca will not be repeated in the national park by another oil road.

Oil development has had a serious impact on Waorani governance and the Waorani people’s ability to determine their own future. I spent a week in Puyo, where the Association of the Waorani Nation of the Ecuadorian Amazon (ONHAE), the tribe’s governing council, has its headquarters. In Puyo, I met with several Waorani community leaders, all of whom spoke about their need to control the movement of people and materials in their territory and their need to determine, as a people, what kinds of contracts and agreements are of benefit to the community as a whole. ONHAE has a history of suffering from corruption in its ranks: while many of its leaders, particularly its current president and vice-president, are competent and honest, its past administrations have been less benign. Because the Waorani have no tradition of centralized authority, with each community of forty to eighty people operating as a more or less autonomous unit, it can be difficult to gain full support from every community for decisions taken as a collective group. This decentralization also makes it easy for corrupt leaders to sign personally lucrative contracts with natural resource extraction groups while escaping the notice of the community at large. Furthermore, the lack of a formal system of government or rule of law among the Waorani makes contracts, once signed, often difficult to retract, even if contracts were entered into without the consent of every community that is the traditional sign of a legitimate collective decision.

I wanted to see what life was like in the Waorani communities so, after leaving Puyo, I went to Bameno, probably the most remote and traditional of the Waorani communities. Bameno, a community in which the Waorani have decided to develop some tourism as a revenue generator, is located on the Cononaco River, a tributary of the Amazon. Located thirteen hours by outboard canoe from the bridge where the Via Auca crosses the Tiguino River, Bameno takes two days to reach, as night navigation on the river is dangerous. I stayed overnight at the Bataburo Lodge, a rustic ecotourism facility four hours downstream from the bridge. Arriving in Bameno at dusk the next day, I found a community moving tentatively from a traditional lifestyle to one embracing more elements of Western-style living. One of my traveling companions, who had visited five years ago, told me that, during his previous visit, no one had been wearing clothes. When I arrived, however, everyone except the very oldest members of the community were.

The head of tourism for the community lives in a traditionally constructed compound with his wife and children, of whom there are about nine. Hanging under the thatched roof of the building where food is prepared is a certificate in Gothic lettering from Harvard, recognizing him for his participation in a conference there some years ago. The community also has an airstrip and a schoolhouse, both built by Shell decades ago, but while the school is very much in use, by school-age children as well as the entire community, the airstrip is rarely used.

In Bameno, I accompanied two elders on a monkey hunt – monkey is an important component of the Waorani diet – and learned some of the ways in which they make use of the forest around them. I gained an important appreciation of how deeply rooted they are in place, and how critical their own land is to their survival and sense of culture. Environmental disaster for the Waorani carries much more dire consequences than can be easily appreciated by those of us whose lifestyles can be uprooted at will and taken nearly anywhere in the world.

In order to continue in their way of life, if they so choose, the Waorani must continue to develop ecotourism on a sustainable scale. It is also imperative that the devastating pollution left by decades of oil exploitation be remediated, as its environmental and public health implications are disastrous. When it rained heavily – as it did every night I spent in Bameno – oil slicks wash along the surface of the Cononaco. Many of the people with whom I spoke told me of getting sick from causes they claim are oil-related; indeed, public-health investigations suggest that cancer rates around the Via Auca are significantly higher than background rates.

The issues surrounding the Waorani speak to the problems environmental studies attempts to address in many respects: social, ecological, legal, ethical. At issue is the question of whether the Waorani can remain in their traditional way of life while also moving far enough into the Western world to deal effectively with the large corporations, and the national government, that will only put increasing pressure on them in the years to come. My time in Ecuador was fascinating, deeply informative, and an invaluable component of what will become my senior essay. I am sincerely grateful to the Environmental Internship Program for choosing to support it.

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The Future of Organic Viticulture in Italy and California
Sonia Cooke, Environmental Studies '08

This summer I worked on a research team investigating the relationship between the incidence of Pierce’s disease and riparian habitat in vineyards. The project was run by Dr. Kendra Baumgartner’s lab in the department of Plant Pathology at UC Davis. Sarah Greenleaf, Ph.D., a conservation biologist from Princeton, directed the project.

Pierce’s disease causes an estimated $9.2 million of economic damage to the viticulture industry annually in northern California. Currently, there is no effective means of controlling the disease. The bacteria that causes Pierce’s disease,Xylella fastidiosa, is carried by the blue-green sharpshooter (Graphocephala atropunctata Signoret), an insect native to the region. Because the blue-green sharpshooter lives in riparian woodlands, and previous studies have linked the occurrence of Pierce’s disease to proximity to riparian habitat, some winegrowers have removed native plants, sprayed herbicides such as Roundup into riparian habitats, and even cleared whole riparian areas in an attempt to control the disease. The project director, Sarah Greenleaf, was particularly interested in investigating the relationship between riparian areas and Pierce’s disease (PD) because of the increasing scarcity of riparian woodland habitat in California. As winegrowers become more and more desperate to control the disease, the risk to endangered riparian areas will increase unless it can be shown that the presence of riparian habitat does not necessarily put a vineyard at risk of severe damage from Pierce’s disease.

In 2005, Dr. Greenleaf began looking into the issue by investigating the relationship between the incidence of Pierce’s disease and the amount of riparian habitat in a given area. She found that on a small spacial scale, riparian habitat increases the chance of an incidence of Pierce’s disease, yet on a larger scale, the presence of riparian habitat decreases the chance of incidence of the disease. Her findings were good and bad news for advocates of riparian conservation. On one hand, she did find a positive relationship between riparian habitat and the presence of Pierce’s disease on a small scale. This finding might encourage winegrape growers to cut back as much riparian as possible to control the disease. On the other hand, her conclusion that more riparian habitat actually decreases the risk of PD incidence on a large scale might provide hope for large-scale conservation measures if many growers could be encouraged to work together to preserve riparian habitat. This is an interesting case because it pits the economic interests of the individual against the less easily quantifiable collective interest.

Before any action could be taken on her findings, however, Dr. Greenleaf needed to investigate the actual mechanisms behind Pierce’s disease transmission and its possible link to riparian habitat. It is known that the pathogen and the vector can be hosted by some riparian plant species, all winegrape varieties, and some ornamental plants, but it is unclear what role these different plants play in actual disease incidence. This is what our team worked to investigate.

Our field crew sampled fifty-two sites in Napa, Sonoma, and Mendocino counties. Some of the sites were certified organic, some used “sustainable” viticulture techniques, while others used several chemicals on their vines. The vineyards were located in regions with varying climates and soil types. Some had large riparian areas while others only had a small strip. We met in the field every day and spent the day sampling the vegetation in the riparian habitat and bug populations. Although this was challenging work, it enabled me to learn about sampling methods and about the local flora in the area. The purpose of this work was to gather data in order to determine which, if any, of the plants we sampled plays host to the blue-green sharpshooter, and if the plant species composition of a particular area had an effect on the presence of sharpshooters.

I also spent a lot of time interviewing winegrape growers in order to obtain basic information about the history of the vineyard, their spray regimes, and their history of riparian vegetation management, if applicable. Although I followed a set questionnaire, I learned a lot by speaking to each grower individually. Almost all had a theory about why they had been hit by or spared from Pierce’s disease. Some swore by their pruning methods, while others relied on a heavy cocktail of pesticides and herbicides. Some felt it was their commitment to the preservation of riparian habitat that had helped them to control the disease. By speaking with these growers, I gained knowledge about winegrape growing, the diseases that typically plague vineyards, and about organic and conventional pest management techniques.

This project relates to my interest in sustainability because one of its central aims was to test the validity of the unproven but widely believed theory that riparian habitat, and certain native plants in particular, inevitably help to transmit Pierce’s disease. If the study shows otherwise, it could have important implications for riparian habitat conservation. Although the results of the study have not been fully analyzed, I am still in contact with Dr. Greenleaf. I hope to look at elements of the data with her, in particular whether the frequency of the incidence of PD was in any way related to pest management techniques used in the vineyard. Did organic vineyards, in general, experience a higher incidence of PD, or was the presence of native pest predator populations perhaps helpful in controlling the disease? Although more data would be needed to draw any concrete conclusions, such analysis could hint at possible areas for further research.

I am very grateful to the Environmental Studies Department for helping me to work on an interesting and education research project this summer. Working on a research team was hard work, but it provided invaluable insight into the scientific process, and helped me gain a better understanding of how university research projects actually function. I would recommend the experience to any student interested in science and conservation.

Source:
Greenleaf, S.S., Viers, J.H., Baumgartner, K. 2006. Natural habitat patches are associated with a crop disease only in deforested landscapes. Submitted to Ecology Letters.

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Azafady Madagascar Pioneer Program
Samara Fox, Cognitive Science '09

Of all the countries in the world, none has more endemic primates than Madagascar and in no other region are so many primates now endangered. A recent report compiled by more than 50 experts from 16 countries shows that a quarter of the world’s pimate taxa are at risk of extinction in the next twenty years. The report features a list of the 25 most endangered primates and the countries which they come from. Madagadcar and Vietnam were named as the two countries most in need of major efforts for the protection of their forests and wild life. Four of the twenty-five species are endemic to Madagascar; the Greater bamboo lemur; the Silky sifaka, the White-collared lemur and Perrier’s sifaka which is now restricted to tiny patches of forest and is hence vulnerable to rapid eradication.

The main threats imposing themselves on these species are identified as habitat loss due to illegal logging, cutting of bamboo, the collection of fuel wood and clearing of land for agriculture. Forests continue to be at risk from uncontrolled bush fires and tavy, slash-and-burn agriculture. Slash-and-burn is the traditional technique for agricultural land preparation, commonly used in Madagascar and the rest of the world. It could be argued to be a ‘sustainable’ practice only where the level of population and therefore pressure on the forest allows enough time for regeneration. Believed to be once completely covered in forest, Madagascar’s being known as The Great Red Island becomes increasingly apt as its red lateritic soil is exposed and washed down to silt up rivers following deforestation.

The Pioneer Program run by British NGO Azafady addresses pressing conservation issues through a number of programs that deal with both immediate threats (such as slash-and-burn deforestation) and long-term threats (overpopulation) to local forests and wildlife. The Pionneer program is distinct because volunteers work alongside Malagasy staff and local people, gaining an intimate understanding of Malagasy culture. As a pioneer, I traveled to a number of remote villages in the Southeastern region of Anosy over a two month period, returning to a base camp in the small city of Fort Dauphin every few weeks.

Our team did conservation work in the coastal village of Ste-Luce, which is surrounded by the few remaining fragments of littoral forest. In there forests we collected the seedlings of the endangered Dypsis palm for tree nurseries so that they could eventually be replanted in the degraded and threatened nearby forest area. We also recorded the GPS location and condition of adult Dypsis palms in the nearby forest.

In an ongoing project in Ste Luce and another remote coastal village, Havatra, we also spent time encouraging locals to build economical clay stoves, which use up to 70% less firewood than the traditional stoves and thus result in less deforestation. We also did follow-up surveys to determine if the local women felt that using improved stoves had an impact on reducing the amount of firewood families had to produce, which it did. In Havatra, we also helped establish small gardens in a number of communities, teaching locals to rotate the vegetables that were planted so as not to deplete the soil.

The rest of our work was concerned with the health and education, which contributed to conservation efforts indirectly by improving local standards of living and reducing the need to over-exploit local natural resources. In Havatra, we spent 2 weeks building a school house alongside a Malagasy construction team. We used materials provided both by the local villagers and the NGO Azafady.

At our final destinations Tsanoria and Andromanake, worked on well-building, latrine building and well repair. Ensuring that local people have access to clean, safe water and generally sanitary conditions reduces the outbreak of deadly diseases such as cholera. As well as begin obviously desirable for humanitarian reasons, projects such as these are important because reductions in infant mortality often lead to reductions in birthrates (where condoms are used and available, as they are beginning to be in the Anosy region of Madagascar). The current birthrates in rural villages are unsustainable based on the resources available to them. Part of the reason rural families have large families is because they want to insure that enough of their children will live to support them in their old age. As fewer children are born but more of them survive, the overall population may decrease and a greater percentage of this population will be old enough to work. This will hopefully put less stress on the fragile environment in which these people live.

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Chinese Mega Dams and Forced Relocation; Yunnan, China
Bjorn Fredrickson, Environmental Studies '07

This summer I traveled to the banks of Nujiang, the Nu River, in northwest Yunnan Province to conduct research regarding the estimated 50,000 people that will be displaced by the construction of a thirteen-dam cascade hydroelectric system. I wanted to discuss the specifics of this project with the farmers who would lose their land and homes, local government officials, and activists in hopes that I could begin to understand how the project’s various stakeholders view the resettlement process and the futures of the dam displacees; I wished to become knowledgeable of Chinese resettlement policies and evaluate whether or not the Chinese government is justly compensating those whom make sacrifices for national progress.

Prior to traveling to Yunnan I stopped briefly at Hohai University in Nanjing. At the National Research Center for Resettlement I gathered documents outlining national policies. In Yunnan I had intended to conduct a survey to determine how much potentially affected peoples know of the cascade dam system project and resettlement process, if people throughout the valley think the dams will directly benefit them, how much importance people assign to various aspects of resettlement compensation, and if people regard their futures as displacees as optimistic or pessimistic. After distributing a number of surveys, however, I decided explore the use of open-ended interviews to obtain my data. I had concluded that in simply surveying, I was missing a great deal of anecdotal evidence that I had not considered while planning my project; interviews would allow people to tell me a variety of stories of personal significance and I could still ask a group of specific questions to obtain some quantitative data.

I visited eleven of the thirteen planned dam sites located in Yunnan’s Nujiang Autonomous Prefecture and Baoshan Municipality, and Tibet’s Linzhi Region. To my surprise, not a single citizen that I spoke to seemed to know if the dams would actually be built or not; they had all heard rumors of the project, and witnessed surveys and various geological studies being performed, but the government has yet to provide them with any information pertaining to the region’s hydroelectric development plans. Women and the elderly knew especially little about the situation and often asked me if the dams were real, if I had come to oversee construction, where the electricity would be sold, and who was funding the project, questions I viewed as fundamentally obvious.

After conversing with members of different minority groups, farmers, village, township, and county officials, and the directors of several NGOs, I concluded that a lack of transparency and public participation in project planning, along with myriad regional instances of failed resettle schemes, leaves the farmers of the Angry River Valley with little hope for improved livelihoods in the future. It seems unlikely, in fact, that those who lose their homes and land to rising reservoir waters will receive compensation, homes, land, stable employment, or monthly compensation, and a moving subsidy, that they deem to be equitable.

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Internship, School of Renewable Energy Technology, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok, Thailand
Michael Gold, Anthropology '07

This summer, I took an internship position at the School for Renewable Energy Technology (SERT) at Naresuan University in Phitsanulok, Thailand. SERT was founded in 1995 as an autonomous governmental institution dedicated to research into the long-term potential of renewable energy — specifically solar, hydro, biomass, and hydrogen energy sources — as well as disseminating the fruits of such research to the public through on-site displays and demonstrations of renewable energy technology. Under the stewardship of Dr. Wattanapong Rackwichian, SERT seeks to discover concrete solutions to the energy problems of Thailand and the southeast Asian region.

At SERT, I took on a fairly unconventional task. Since I have only minimal technical background and training, I was unable to participate in the hard scientific research of the institute. Instead, I worked in more of a public-relations capacity, writing, directing, and editing a short promotional movie about energy-use problems in Thailand, SERT’s history and background, and how SERT is addressing these energy issues. The movie included interviews with numerous members of the SERT staff, as well as an in-depth examination of the SERT facility and its “Energy Park,” which showcases a solar-powered fountain, houses, and office buildings. The movie ended with a display of one of SERT’s field sites in the Thai countryside, where a solar dryer helps promote the local economy through the drying and preservation of tropical agriculture products, particularly bananas.

I spent a total of 10 weeks in Thailand, including a week-long orientation in Bangkok through the Kenan Institute Asia, which was an invaluable introduction to Thai customs, culture, and language (though the movie was filmed in English and most of the SERT staff spoke English). From there, I began my internship project at SERT, spending the first two weeks of my internship getting acquainted with the institute, the university, and the surrounding town, and writing a preliminary script. I then spent the next five weeks filming the project; I collected most of my footage at the SERT facility, but I ventured out quite frequently with staff members to field sites and other places of interest, such as a local coal-fired power plant and several Thai wilderness reserves. Though I collected hours upon hours of footage, the most daunting task came during the last two weeks of my internship. The editing process — paring my voluminous collection of shots down to a single, coherent narrative, about 30 minutes in length — was the most labor-intensive of my time in Thailand. Once I finished my movie, I presented it to the SERT staff in its complete and polished form on the final day of my internship.

My summer internship experience was unlike anything I’d ever undertaken in my life. The frustrations and setbacks were eclipsed only by the moments of extreme satisfaction and pleasure, both professional and personal, that I felt during my time in Thailand, as living independently and working in Thailand is a difficult task for a westerner with only minimal knowledge of the Thai language. I interacted largely with only one other westerner, a 26-year-old Master’s Degree candidate from Luxembourg, who was working on a biomass project through SERT. Most of my relationships were with local Thai college students, and Naresuan University is a fantastic place to make friends, since it is a largely self-contained college community with a huge dose of school spirit and a lively social scene. As well, the Thai calendar marks the beginning of the academic year in June, when I was first arriving at SERT, so the campus was always bustling with life, much like Yale in the early autumn. The only drawback was the language barrier — few Thai college students are proficient in English. I am a naturally social person, and it was often quite frustrating being unable to fully communicate with the fascinating people I was meeting and mingling with.

The cultural/language barrier extended to my internship project. I was essentially working by myself, writing, filming, and editing alone. Though SERT provided me with all the tools necessary to complete my project, including a camcorder, tripod, and editing software, I generally had to take the initiative to find my footage, no matter how obscure. The staff, however, were more than willing to help out; when I told them I needed shots of a conventional power plant, they planned an entire day trip to the coal plant, bringing along their Master’s students for a tour.

Nevertheless, the project was incredibly challenging. Not only was I making a film, I was a one-man crew in Thailand. I have made movies before, and I have been to Thailand before, but nothing could prepare me for the ordeals, both material and mental, I was to face: getting attacked by fire ants during one adventurous day of shooting; losing my notebook computer due to water damage for several weeks during the middle of my stay; the heat, the storms, and the snail-slow Internet. Sometimes I would simply grow tired — once in a while, I considered coming home early.

But a positive perspective would always prevail. I feel like I grew as a person, and I discovered things about myself that I can’t even begin to hint at in this report. Professionally, I gained greater knowledge of the energy problems facing Thailand and Southeast Asia, and through my film, I got the chance to bring the public closer to these seemingly distant issues. I do wonder what SERT will do with my film now that I’m gone; just the fact that I completed it is reward enough for me.

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Morphological and Genetic Diversity in the Giant Tortoise Populations on Santa Cruz, Galapagos Islands: Implications for Future Conservation Strategies
Jerry Guo, Biology '09

From August 1 to August 26 I traveled with a Yale team and international collaborators to the Galapagos to conduct research on the giant tortoises. During my time on the islands, I met many scientists and caught a glimpse of how field biologists operate. The summer really gave me the ecological background and enthusiasm to work hard this year in Dr. Caccone’s lab and towards coursework in the EEB department.

The field project involved 2 weeklong trips to the tortoise populations at La Caseta and Cerro Fatal, a day trip back to the Cerro Fatal population, a few day’s worth of work at the breeding center on juvenile tortoises, and two afternoons of work on marine iguanas. For the tortoise work, we collected morphological data by taking images of the carapace and plastron from different angles to later reconstruct the morphology in a 3D model. We also took many measurements of the carapace and plastron. These straight and curved measurements will be used for calibration and comparison to the 3D reconstruction. In addition, we drew blood from the individuals to expand the current database in the Caccone lab on the Santa Cruz populations. The blood will be used for genetic work later in association with the morphological analysis.

Our first trip to Cerro Fatal began with a two hour hike with our camping and cooking gear. The Cerro Fatal region falls in the lowlands, which is a desert environment. Each day we set out at 7 AM to find tortoises as one team, and returned around 5 PM when the sun began to set. My responsibilities on the first trip were to record the measurements as well as sometimes help with the blood extraction by holding open the arm. Everyone on the team also helped with finding new specimens by branching out in the field. In around five days, we managed to process around 60 tortoises.

Because this is an on-going project, results from the summer work are not available yet. What we have so far are images, blood, and measurements from around 120 tortoises and 40 juveniles, as well as a small number of saddleback tortoises from the station. This data will be used in the lab this fall to begin analysis of the morphology and evolutionary genetics of the two populations, La Caseta and Cerro Fatal, examining their similarities and differences.

The summer has been a tremendous learning experience for me. To have the opportunity to see the Galapagos is first of all eye-opening and inspiring. But to be able to work alongside international scientists is truly remarkable, and I am indebted to the environmental department for their support. I was able to see first-hand how field biology works, not just in the techniques of data collection, but also in the collaboration among the researchers.

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Sustainable Use and the Philippine NGO; Palawon, Philippines
Allison Guy, Environmental Studies / Art '08

First the first three weeks of my summer, I lead the Reach Out Philippines trip. While this was technically not part of my proposal for the Environmental Internship Program, it proved a valuable addition to my summer as a whole. During this trip, we spent a week in the capital city Manila, a week in the mountain provinces, and a week on the island of Palawan. We met with large organizations such as WHO, ADB and USAID, and with local groups that dealt many issues, from sustainable agriculture to the rights of victims of environmental disasters. As well, we volunteered building houses in the city of Baguio, and constructed segments of an artificial coral reef in Palawan.

After the group left, I stayed in El Nido for another three weeks, working with the El Nido Foundation. As a scuba diver, I regularly helped to install artificial coral modules and monitor the progress of transplanted corals on the modules. As well, I worked on the Foundation’s experimental farm, harvesting vegetables and feeding pigs, and created children’s activities for their educational ‘caravan’ program. Working with the El Nido Foundation was a helpful introduction to the characteristics of a successful NGO. I learned the importance of constant communication and consultation of the local government and community. The Foundation made multiple presentations about the benefits of each project in surrounding settlements, invited farmers and school groups to their experimental farm, held regular environmental movie nights, and organized learning demonstrations, among many others. The Foundation’s large base of local support has consequently made it easier to persuade communities to implement marine protected areas, for example, and has helped to nearly halt the highly destructive practices of dynamite and cyanide fishing.

From El Nido it was one short flight through a typhoon, and one long jeepney ride to the small town of Decabobo, on the island of Busuanga. There I stayed with Jules Calagui, who spear-headed the formation of the local cooperative, and Imelda Bacudo, a graduate of the Yale School of Forestry. While working with the Decabobo Multi-Purpose Cooperative, I helped to construct an irrigation and water-storage system, as well as building a demonstration paraw, or sailing kayak. In contrast to the dug-out boats currently in use, the kayak is lightweight, easy to sail and maneuver, longer-lasting, and because it is made of plywood, does not require the felling of rare and old-growth trees for its construction. In Decabobo, I learned the importance of cooperation, especially between local families, and the overwhelming need for education and some form of official oversight. In one case, the Cooperative had been running a successful seaweed farming operation, which subsequently failed due to trace amounts of cyanide that killed the seaweed. The community lacks both the resources and political clout to deal with the cyanide fishers, who are from other regions of the country, are wealthier, more violent, and have locally powerful connections in the live-fish trade. While my experiences in Decabobo were discouraging at times, they served to deepen my resolve to study marine conservation, and to learn more methods of allowing coastal communities to manage their resources.

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School for Field Studies Summer Program,
Turks & Caicos
Mark Havel, Biology (Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Track) '06

This summer I spent four weeks on a small island in the Caribbean. Contrary to popular belief, I did not spend those weeks on a beautiful beach, sipping on drinks garnished by tiny umbrellas. Instead, I enrolled in an intensive summer study abroad program sponsored by the School for Field Studies, an organization based at Boston University that gives students the opportunity to learn outdoor field techniques, participate in various research projects, and interact with the local community. One of their research centers is located on the island of South Caicos in the Turks & Caicos Islands (TCI), an overseas territory of the United Kingdom. South Caicos is not a touristy spot; the local economy is based on harvesting queen conch (Strombus gigas) and Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) from the surrounding waters. Less than one thousand people live on South Caicos during the fishing seasons, and in the off-season the population dwindles to around four hundred residents.

During the TCI summer sessions, the school offers a marine resource management class. The course focuses on the use of marine protected areas (MPAs) as means to not only preserve the environment but to also contribute to future economic development and diversification. It is divided into three portions: ecology, economics, and policy. At the end of the third week, a cumulative and comprehensive exam was administered. Small assignments included economic experiments using game theory, article discussions, and the field identification of over one hundred different species of fishes, corals, and algae. The four weeks culminated in a large group project that entailed a well-researched policy report as well as a 25 minute oral presentation. My group’s objectives were to re-zone the islands of South, East, and Middle Caicos and focus on bringing in eco-tourist businesses to bolster the economy.

There was a lot to see in do in four weeks, so Monday through Saturday was jam-packed with activities (roughly half of which took place underwater). In the first two weeks, classroom sessions were held in the morning while the afternoons were devoted to identifying various marine organisms out in the water. Other activities, such as overnight camping trips, beach clean-up, and volunteering at the disabled center, were also offered. The last two weeks were designed to introduce us to some common techniques used in the field as well as the current research being done on South Caicos. I toured processing plants, counted upside-down mangrove jellyfish, observed blue tang spawning aggregations, tested for dissolved oxygen content, and tagged bonefish, sea turtles, and barracuda in order to determine migration and life cycle patterns.

Needless to say, I had an amazing time. I highly recommend this program to anyone interested in marine ecological field work. After one month, you take home not only a deep understanding and wealth of experience but also the knowledge that your work has directly contributed to a vibrant community.

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Experiencing the Exquisite Environment of Ecuador: International Education of Students Program, Quiti, Ecuador
Angel Hertslet, Undeclared '08

I participated in a six-week program facilitated by the Institute for International Education of Students (IES) in Quito, Ecuador. I took three classes at the Universidad San Francisco de Quito (USFQ) and stayed with a host family. The classes I took were Ecuadorian Ecosystems, Environmental Issues: Conservation and Public Policy in Ecuador, and Advanced Spanish. All of my classes were taught my USFQ professors—my Spanish professor was Cuban and my other two professors were Ecuadorian. The IES Quito Summer 2006 program was small (there were ten students) which allowed for very intimate class discussions and a large amount of personal attention.

My experience in Ecuador has certainly influenced the way I view the environment. Previous to this summer I had only limited experience with the ways of the developing world. Many things I experienced this summer caught me off guard or caused me to rethink certain assumptions I had about environment and how people interact with it. For example, DDT is still widely used in Ecuador. I had always thought that DDT was a thing of the past for the whole world but when faced with the choice of malaria or DDT, one can see the situation many tropical areas are faced with. In addition, the working conditions of many of the rose plantation workers are abysmal. They have virtually no voice or forum to speak up against all of the pesticides and chemicals that compromise their health on a daily basis.

Ecuador is certainly an interesting place, perhaps best described by the seemingly disparate occurrences that are somehow juxtaposed in such a way that is ironic to say the very least. On one hand it is heralded as one of the leading countries in eco-tourism, an industry that draws in environmentally conscious tourists. At the same time, the oil extraction business is by far the largest revenue generating industry supporting Ecuador. The countryside and the urban setting are such polar opposites in regards to income level, education, access to medical care, language, and general perspective within the world. That’s not to say the cities don’t have their share of environmental problems. Perhaps one of the most striking for me was the air pollution. When the city buses drove past me, I had to close my mouth and eyes for fear of gritty black particulates sticking to my teeth or getting in my eyes. Huge black clouds of smoke clog the city streets and after walking around for a bit, leave one with a troublesome headache.

My classes exposed me to a wide array of environmental issues as well as the social repercussions linked to each issue. In addition, my course on Ecuadorian ecosystems had a large field-trip component to it. This meant that I was able to learn about the Andean highlands by actually visiting them. My professor was extremely knowledgeable and eager to share his beautiful country with us. On our trip to the highlands, we hiked up Chimborazo, one of the snow-capped volcanoes of Ecuador. Along the way, we learned about water and energy saving techniques the plants employ. We were lucky to see one of the highland hummingbirds an extremely rare sighting due to the incredibly harsh conditions it must exist under. We also paid a visit to Cotopaxi, the highest active volcano in the world. We hiked up to the lofty elevation of 4,800 m or 15,744 feet to see the glacier. Among other issues we discussed the impacts of climate change on Cotopaxi as illustrated through the rapidly receding glacier.

When I visited the cloud forest of Mindo, I found myself in a densely vegetated jungle setting with mist clinging to the sides of mountains. Orchids and hummingbirds decorated the landscape and only added to the already surreal setting. The visit to the headwaters of the Amazon in the Ecuadorian jungle also had my mind reeling. I had the luck of seeing peccaries, an iguana, a sloth, three species of monkey, toucans, millipedes, all sorts of ants, spiders, and bugs, and more. It was there that I experienced the effects of the oil industry on the jungle. As we trekked through the understory, I could hear the scout planes droning overhead surveying the next block of land scheduled for ‘exploration.’

My final trip was a ten-day trip to the Galapagos. The first week I stayed at the Galapagos Academic Institute for the Arts and Sciences (GAIAS). The second week I traveled from island to island with a professional park guide. The experience of seeing such wild animals at such close proximity truly was amazing. Because humans are not perceived as a threat, they have no fear of you and will confidently approach you. I was nearly kissed by a sea lion underwater! The issues most heavily discussed included poaching, the fishing industry, tourism and its effects, and general management of the Galapagos National Park. We also had ample opportunity to discuss endemism, invasive species, evolution, and the unique qualities of the Galapagos. We finished off our stay with a visit to the Charles Darwin Research Station where I had the honor of meeting Lonesome George, the last of his subspecies.

Culturally I found my time in Ecuador to be so rich with adventures and learning experiences. My host family played a large part in my immersion into Ecuadorian culture. IES also provided many opportunities to experience the culture of Ecuador through providing dance classes, presentations, and screenings for those interested. My Spanish professor took the class to three different museums in Quito where we receive in-depth tours that both challenged my Spanish skills as well as shed light on the history of Quito and greater Ecuador.

This summer has brought up many questions for me. My time in Ecuador has opened my eyes to an array of issues that I was heretofore unaware of. In addition, any time abroad can only make one more empathetic and passionate toward situations that are occurring on the other side of the globe. I feel that this opportunity has cemented into my mind that I am a global citizen before all else and that there is so much work to be done to make this world a cleaner more sustainable place for all walks of life. In the coming months I must decide on a concentration within the environmental studies major. While I can’t say that this experience has illuminated any one environmental issue over another as my life’s calling, I can say that it has increased my awareness of my place in the world tenfold. I highly recommend this program to any and everyone. I would be more than happy to talk at length with anyone interested in the details of my summer as well as any prospective students interested in doing the IES Quito program.

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Marine Conservation of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef Ecosystem with Global Visions International at Pez Maya, Mexico
John Hinkle, Biology (Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Track) '09

I selected this summer program because of the opportunity to do real research, the introduction to marine biology it would provide and the immersion in a foreign culture. All of my highest hopes were realized during my time in Mexico and the experience was truly an invaluable one in its ability to portray the necessity and actual implementation of conservation in such a setting.

The Yucatan peninsula is a region of great ecological diversity; however these natural resources are at an extremely high risk. Cancun has exploded in the past couple decades and the entire Riviera Maya corridor continues to expand. Playa del Carmen, the departure point for Cozumel, is one of the fastest growing cities in the world and lies only an hour north of Pez Maya (my base for the five weeks)—the lights from Playa can be seen on the beach at Pez Maya each night. The region has taken some steps to preserve the natural treasures that the Yucatan possesses; however, the threat to these natural ecosystems is very real. The information gathered by the monitoring done at Pez Maya through Global Vision International is instrumental in persuading those in power to forego one time windfalls associated with building hotels and resorts and instead investigate eco-tourism and other environmentally sensitive options.

Daily routine

Each day during my five week stay began at 6:30 am. Different groups were assigned various duties to be completed before breakfast. These duties ranged from kitchen duty (cooking the meals), to boat duty (preparing the two boats for the day’s dives), to communal duty (cleaning the main gathering area) and finally ground duty (cleaning the bathrooms and raking the paths to discourage sand flies). Breakfast would follow these duties and by 7:45 the boats would be pushed down the beach to the water so that the first two dives could disembark. Throughout the day, approximately ten different dives would go out to the reefs just offshore. Each person would dive twice, once in the morning and once in the afternoon. After the dives were finished, the boats were once again pulled up onto shore and the equipment removed. The nights were spent planning the next day, relaxing a little bit and going to bed early (the next day would begin early as well). We dove everyday except for Sunday, which was set aside as a day for decompression and down time.

Scuba training

I arrived in Mexico with absolutely no scuba training. I had not even snorkeled outside of my pool. Not every volunteer was in my situation, but the majority was. Thus, the scuba diving training began very quickly and progressed rapidly. In the first two weeks I moved from diving in an enclosed cenote (something similar to a pond) to the open Atlantic Ocean. Part of the staff was entirely dedicated to teaching novice divers how to safely and effectively scuba dive. My training involved written work, tests, dives focused on improving skills and others focused on encountering various underwater situations. My final certification achieved was Advanced Open Water Diver certified by PADI (Professional Association of Diving Instructors). A huge emphasis was placed on safety during and after the training. Each dive was a buddy dive, meaning that I had to stay within arm’s reach of my diving buddy, I had to surface with at least 750 pounds per square inch of air remaining in my tank, safety stops were required on dives over 50 feet and each dive had a very specific dive profile that had to be followed exactly. All of these restrictions were in place to ensure that every diver, no matter his/her experience level, was always safe and comfortable underwater.

Science

Not only was I a novice scuba diver, but I also had no training as a marine biologist. The many species of coral and fish that the expedition was focused on conserving were all alien to me. However, a similarly rigorous process was in place to teach me all that I needed to know. I was assigned the task of monitoring fish. This assignment entailed learning over 100 species of adult fish and 25 species of juvenile fish and being able to identify each underwater. I began by learning the fish from a book. Each had a picture and description of its appearance, size and behavior. Once I was familiar with the fish in the context of the book, I had to take a written test identifying all the fish from pictures alone. A score of at least 95% was required before I could move on to the next stage. After this was completed, underwater fish spots and tests began. The appearance of fish underwater was extremely different compared to the books, thus it took some time to become used to underwater fish spots. Once an underwater fish test was passed with 100% accuracy (identifying each and every fish an instructor pointed out) I could begin monitoring specific sites on the reef. Without passing such an underwater test, volunteers were not allowed to collect information, a rule which kept some from monitoring the entire time I was in Mexico. A similar program was implemented for those volunteers who were assigned to monitor coral.

The monitoring dives provided the information that was subsequently used to preserve the reef. The sites to be monitored were selected by a local conservation agency because of heightened risk due to onshore development. I gathered raw data of the number, type, size and variety of fish species on the reefs. There existed very specific protocols for obtaining this data, which also required days to master but ensured that the data would be valid and accurate.

Other aspects of trip

In addition to encountering the myriad of life on the reefs, the expedition also worked to aid the many sea turtles that nested on the beach as well as the bird populations in the surrounding forests. I was in Mexico during Green turtle nesting season and nests of loggerhead turtles as well as green turtles hatched while I was there. In addition, each morning a group of birders would monitor different sites of the forest to gather information on the bird species present in the area.

Reflections

The most striking aspect of my time in Mexico was the sheer volume of life present under the water which so often goes unnoticed. Without this experience, I would remain ignorant of the many wonders that lie so close to the surface yet most people never encounter. And with this knowledge, their plight becomes even more immediate. Because the majority population is not as aware of these marvels, it is easier to disregard the effects our actions have on these ecosystems. The contrast between my time spent at Playa del Carmen and at Pez Maya was amazing, despite the fact that both, at one point, possessed the same natural resources just yards offshore. The detrimental effect of human development in Playa was undeniable. No turtles could nest because of the lights, the water was not as pristine, and the huge volume of boat traffic was constantly disrupting the reefs. My time in Mexico impressed upon me the urgency of conservation, especially in areas such as the Yucutan which are experiencing an explosion of growth. Unless the welfare of the natural ecosystems is considered during this growth, valuable resources will be, and are being, lost. My perspective of the necessity for conservation, as well as what conservation is able to achieve, has been drastically altered by my experience in Mexico, and I would recommend this program to any student.

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Sustainable Living in the Atlantic Rainforest, Iracambi Research and Conservation Center, Brazil
Margaret Howard, Environmental Studies '08

This summer I volunteered for a month at Iracambi, a farm and research center located in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais. The aim of the farm is to be economically sustainable, at the same time that it is environmentally sustainable. Iracambi main crops are sugar cane and eucalyptus, an interesting crop because it can create a type of forest ecosystem if allowed. Iracambi also has a charcoal pit, fish ponds, dairy cows, and honey bees, the last two of which give Iracambi its name, since Iracambi means the land of milk and honey in the native Tupi language.

The Iracambi’s research focuses on four main areas: land use, forest restoration, income-generating alternatives, and community development. The overarching goal of all of these projects is to “make the conservation of the forest more attractive than its destruction.” My time there helped me understand the local economy and the research and agricultural initiatives of Iracambi, as well as work on some interesting tasks myself. I came away from the experience with some new ideas and new questions.

I came to Iracambi as a general volunteer, and so I ended up with an interesting mix of tasks. All the volunteers would work from nine to five on the week days with a break for lunch on individual projects or whatever needed to be done. One of my favorite tasks was clearing the various trails on Iracambi’s property with a machete. The trails were used for research purposes and to take students and other visitors on. It was tiring work, but rewarding to reclaim areas where the trail had been lost, and the trails themselves were all beautiful, whether they led to a majestic vista or followed a river down a series of waterfalls. It was also interesting to see forests in different stages of regeneration. The old growth forests definitely looked different than the forests that had been regenerating for several decades.

My other tasks included painting signs for the trails, putting together a newsletter for Iracambi, and laying out pamphlets. I measured trees one day and another day I worked with a GPS handheld device to map the road into town. I spent a fair portion of my time looking at previous research that had been done at Iracambi, organizing the research and summarizing some of the longer papers. Finally, I also got to prepare dinner for a large group of people, which was something I had never done before.

Iracambi provided a great learning environment. I was exposed to the research and ideas of the other volunteers and researchers, as well as to the organizational issues of a volunteer driven organization. If anyone is interested in volunteering or conducting research at Iracambi at would be delighted to talk to them; my email is margaret.howard@yale.ed.

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Amphibian Decline and Environmental Change: A Conservation Genetics Approach
Qazim Hyseni, Environmental Studies '07

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Wildlife Research Marine Mammal Studies and Community Development in Kenya
Emily Jack-Scott, Environmental Studies '08

This summer I was an expedition member with Global Vision International (GVI) in Kenya. Global Vision International is a UK-based non-governmental organization, which works closely with select communities on addressing the issues that those communities feel most impede their path towards sustainable development. In Kenya, GVI’s primary partner was Kenyan Wildlife Services, as this organization seeks to gather data on the biodiversity of the region’s marine and terrestrial environments. Another key component of the expedition was a community-based initiative, working in conjunction with the National Museums of Kenya and numerous community committees on successfully and sustainably tapping into the robust ecotourism market of the area. Kenya has always pioneered efforts in Africa to protect the environment, and that passion and appreciation for a healthy environment seems to permeate Kenyan culture. It was truly inspiring to work alongside people of a completely different culture who shared the apparently innate respect for the environment that I have felt throughout my life.

I stayed for five weeks on Wasini Island just off the border between Kenya and Tanzania in the Indian Ocean. On one side of the island was a marine park, highly popular amongst dolphins, sea turtles, fish and tourists. As a result of the allotment of this park however, the local population of Wasini Island was partially deprived of their income as they’re subsistence fishermen, and fishing was illegal in the marine park. As a result, the community was avidly looking for a way to regain a sustainable lifestyle by tapping into the ecotourism of the park and region, without damaging the gorgeous environment that draws tourists from around the world. Therefore, community members were incredibly open and excited to receive data about how human influence was shaping their surrounding ecosystems. Furthermore, to best interact with tourists community members, young and old were also highly receptive to English classes. HIV/AIDS classes were also conducted to fulfill the desire for reliable knowledge about the transmission and treatment of the disease.

Having returned to the United States, I feel I gained invaluable experience that has familiarized me with solid methodologies of ecology research. I also have a much higher respect for educators and how incredibly difficult it is to effectively teach a student body. There is no doubt in my mind that I will remember and value this experience for the rest of my life. Being so immersed in a world where the forces of nature are so all powerful and impressive brought to heart the lessons about ecosystems and biology that I’ve learned in only academic settings before this summer. I have never felt more committed to or passionate about being an Environmental Studies major.

The project I worked on with this organization was divided into three parts. The first part was devoted to marine mammal and megafauna research, largely dolphins and sea turtles. The location of Wasini Island in Kenya was selected in part because it borders Kenya’s Kisite-Mpunguti National Marine Park. Fishing has been outlawed in the park’s waters to offer a rich grounds for feeding and breeding for marine species. However, there has been little to no research done on the region’s waters. The dolphin research was conducted through a photograph identification method, to identify local species and individuals. Over time, this methodology will be able to indicate whether the dolphins seen in the area are simply migrating through or if they remain nearby all year round. Marine research was carried out half from a raised stationary land base overlooking a broad swath of the surrounding waters, and half from GVI’s 10-person motor boat on the water. Each person on duty was trained extensively in exactly how to record sea and weather conditions, as well as dolphin behavior patterns. Measures including the Beaufort scale, visibility, cloud cover, latitude and longitude, speed, swell size, and ocean floor depth soundings were taken every fifteen minutes. Dolphins would only ever be observed for behavior if they were spotted ahead of the boat’s course. This was done because it is assumed that dolphins change their behavior around boats. The land base took similar measurements every fifteen minutes, and was useful because it eliminated the interference that swell could create when spotting dolphins from the boat on the water. In time, the research should also offer insight into how the presence of vessels, especially tourist dhows and swim-with-dolphin tour groups, may or may not influence dolphin behavior.

The second portion of research was conducted in the coastal forests of Wasini Island and the neighboring mainland Shimoni Forest. The surveys were done by cutting transects with machetes through the forests, each transect 200m apart from the one before it. Surveys in the forest included primate behavior, vegetation, canopy cover, and human disturbance of the area. There were specific criteria and equipment used to determine accurately these measurements. Machete usage was also conducted only after proper training.

The final portion of the expedition was devoted to community outreach. In order for the community to develop sustainably, they decided they could not merely learn how to attract tourists to the area, but also how to interact with them effectively. Therefore, our community work was devoted largely to teaching English to both children and interested adults. We led separate English classes for men and women as the area is approximately 80% Muslim, and men and women felt more comfortable with such a setup. While in the community, we wore headscarves and covered up shoulders and legs to create as close a relationship with community members as possible.

Our base, while in the village on the Island that we worked on, was slightly removed to maintain some space in conducting operations. The living conditions were barracks style, with three rooms housing four bunk-beds each. Expeditions usually have about 20-24 members, and there are eight highly specialized staff on site at any time. The staff remains on site for year-long stints at the shortest. They train all incoming expeditions members in each of the three aforementioned fields and technique styles, and will not allow members to enter the field until they have passed examinations with 95% or higher. The expedition is constantly devoted to safety, not only delivering numerous safety presentations (each concerning different aspects of the trip – from marine hazards, to forest safety, to the dangers of private dive shops and local restaurants), but also certifying us in international CPR and Emergency First Responder training.

As the project has been in Kenya for 6 months, only preliminary data has been collected. Already though, it is clear that the area sees many bottlenose and humpback species of dolphins, with the humpbacks remaining largely in shallow waters. Humpback whales do pass through the area, and sea turtles are common in areas with sea grass. In the forest we have encountered species ranging from Sykes and colobus monkeys to massive horned spiders and army ants. In the community, a great deal of progress has been made in the students’ English. Also, committees and community groups have shown major improvements in organization skills and in contacting new members.

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Infrastructure Development in the Face of Urban Growth; Center for Khmer Studies, Cambodia
Erin Lin, Environmental Studies / International Studies '07

The Yale Environmental Studies Summer Internship Program funded my three weeks of land rights research in Phnom Penh, Cambodia that prepared me for a two-month long independent research project with the Center for Khmer Studies in Siem Reap, sponsored by the Henry Luce Foundation. As an intern, I joined a Khmer research team, headed by Dr. Penny Edwards, a University of California Berkeley professor and a prominent author in Cambodian modern history. Our research concerned the Tonle Bassac neighborhood, a mixed-community of artists, prostitutes, gang members, and low-income people. The main goal of the research team was to write an ethnographic survey of the neighborhood through an anthropological perspective. My job as part of the research team was to interview all English-speaking informants who have worked with the settlement, so I was able to talk to a well-versed contact list: the heads of many local NGOs, like the Urban Poor Development Fund and Green Goal, government officials in the Ministry of Urban Planning and Ministry of Culture, CEOs of real estate companies, and professional urban architects and academics. The research team also gave me access to all relevant libraries in Phnom Penh, so I was able to do archival research in the Cambodia Development Resource Institute, the Center for Khmer Studies library in Phnom Penh, and the Center for Advanced Studies.

Upon the conclusion of my three-week stay in Phnom Penh, I published a report entitled “The Cambodian Land Law in theory and in practice—how are existing laws interpreted in current commerce?” in Multistory Phnom Penh, editor Penny Edwards. The book is to be released in December 2006 in Phnom Penh, and it will be distributed both in Khmer and in English. In addition, I was selected by Penny Edwards to be the Associate Conference Coordinator for her latest international conference scheduled for January 2007. The conference is called, “Living Capital: Sustaining Diversity in Southeast Asian Cities,” and it will take place in Phnom Penh. Finances permitting, I will return to Phnom Penh during Winter Break to organize the final logistics of the conference and to present my senior thesis on the effects of Health Equity Funds on the health and socioeconomic status of the Phnom Penh poor (one of the communities affected by Health Equity Funds is actually the Tonle Bassac neighborhood).

My proudest achievement however arose when I arranged financially and logistically for three of my fellow Khmer researchers to present their work on the Tonle Bassac neighborhood in a conference in Singapore this November entitled “Southeast Asia and Sustainability.” Most of the researchers on my team have never been able to leave the country for financial reasons, and those who have only have traveled as far as Thailand. Yet through many emails with the conference coordinators and with some finance shifting in our research budget, I, with the help of Dr. Edwards, was able to find the money to have Sok Leang, Sambo, and Samnon be able to share their research to an audience of international scholars and professionals—something they have never done before. If I am able to find the funding to travel to the conference, Dr. Edwards has granted me Interim Project Head status at Singapore as she will be unable to attend. In short, I have begun to find the academic opportunities in Cambodia, and I attribute this scholarly goldmine to the Environmental Studies Summer Internship.

My project was a two-step process. First, I had to obtain a solid understanding of the Cambodian property laws and the history of the land law leading up to 2001, when the latest land law was ratified. This part of the research was primarily conducted through archival research and document analysis. The next step involved work in the field—specifically the professional field—in understanding how relevant these laws were in private property rights, with a focus on the rights of the urban poor.

I discovered that the 2001 Land Law is written with enough loopholes that the government can take complete advantage of its citizens, most of which have low socioeconomic status relative to the wealth of the high government officials and policy makers. For example, the Land Law classifies land into three main types: state public land, state private land, and private land. State public land is basically defined as land that serves the public interest, and it ranges from national parks to school buildings to airports and roads. State private land is any state land that is not state public land. State private land can also be sold off to private investors. This issue is especially important given the number of squatters and people who do not hold land titles to their homes because of the tumultuous modern history of the Lon Nol regime, the Khmer Rouge, the Vietnamese occupation, and the UN resettlement. Though the Prime Minister Hun Sen had promised to never evict squatters from state public land in a May 2003 speech, the government has switched state public land into state private land behind closed doors and then sold it to foreign investors, who then evict all squatters on their property. The problem has expanded to the point that the state now transfers all public property automatically to private hands without any documentation. In addition, no maps or lists exist that differentiate the land categories from each other in Phnom Penh. Since there are no legal ramifications to the clear abuse in power, the poor are getting further and further behind while the rich minority in Phnom Penh are only becoming more wealthy.

Given my lack of experience in policy formation and development studies, I found it difficult to provide suggestions to improve the legal conditions of the country. Granted less corruption would be helpful, but it is difficult to change a system of corruption and legal disobedience if there is no one who has the authority to punish people except those who are being corrupt. In addition, there is a fine line between corruption and “getting things done” in an inefficient bureaucracy. My experience in Cambodia has made me sympathetic to the academics, policy makers, and local and foreign actors involved in bringing a developing country responsibly into the world society. Seeing the conditions firsthand has led me to understand the infinite angles at which people approach development problems, and I have seen the importance of communication among all actors involved from the foreign money-lenders to the government to the citizens who often lack a political voice. It is easy to be harsh on policies that don’t work, but I also understand the importance of ideals and adherence to basic principles and ethics that allow for human rights to be enacted.

Without the Environmental Studies Summer Internship, I would not have sought of the career path that I am currently pursing. Now I am applying for a Fulbright scholarship to study the healthcare efforts of USAID in Phnom Penh slums. In addition, I wish to pursue a J.D.-Ph.D. in order to further a joint-career in land rights advocacy. I aim to conduct research in developing countries with a solid understanding the language of the law in order to offer the most effective and responsible legal policies. In short, I thank the Environmental Studies Summer Internship Committee for allowing me to find my career interest in human rights, without which, I would still be wondering what my calling is for quite some time.

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Sustainable Agriculture, Forestry and Environmental Education at Jatun Sacha's La Hesperia Biological Station, Toachi-Pilatio Forest in Ecuador
Jacob Marcus, Math or Political Science '08

This summer I volunteered at the La Hesperia Biological Station and Reserve. The reserve is located in the Toachi-Pilatón forest near the small town of La Esperie, reachable by buses, which barrel down the two lane highway that winds along a cliff for most of the journey. The reserve, a member of the Jatun Sacha foundation, aims to protect the region's forests, which scientists consider one of the most diverse and threatened on earth, maintain the reserve as an Important Birds area, work towards sustainable development, create programs to foster community development, restore degraded areas, conduct research on the flora and fauna of the reserve and educate the public about conservation and ecology.

At the reserve, I took part in a variety of projects to promote conservation and to maintain the station. The station maintains a variety of crops, including banana, papaya, beans, manioc, sugar cane and coffee. I often worked in the station's organic vegetable garden. The vegetable garden provides the station with a testing bed for crops that grow well in the area and for sustainable techniques that might improve the yield of local farms. In the long term, La Hesperia hopes to bring what works in their gardens and fields into La Esperie and the surrounding towns. Recently, the station has hosted classes for the local community, but this project is still in its infancy. In the process of weeding, watering and planting, I learned some of the fundamentals of sustainable agriculture.

Besides working in the reserve's gardens, I participated in its sustainable forestry program, which includes restoring degraded areas and wood production. I spent time tending to the several pastures that the station was working to restore. The station reforests the pastures with tree species, first cultivated in its nursery, important to the natural environment. I found that an important part of volunteering was not only contributing to work on conservation and sustainability, but to the general maintenance of the reserve. To this end, I laid down cobblestone paths in the medicinal garden, fixed stairs and built a cob bench outside of the volunteer house.

Juan Pablo and Alexandra, the station's coordinators, also allowed volunteers to supplement their work at the reserve with work in the community. I taught basic mathematics in Spanish at the school in Esperie. This experience helped me improve my Spanish and gave me the opportunity to connect with the local community. After teaching in the school, I knew the children, who would regularly beat us in the weekly volunteers versus community soccer game. I also did two brief home stays with a family in Esperie, who like most in the town, ran a farm. This was an invaluable experience for me. Like teaching, I only spoke Spanish in the time I was there. I also learned more about farming, and the familiarity most of the world has with agriculture; a familiarity with food and its cultivation that most in industrial nations do not possess. In additional to working at the reserve and in the community, the volunteer program included weekly lectures by Alexandra on Ecuadorian culture, history, ecology and politics and guided hikes around the surrounding cloud forest.

I want to thank the Environmental Studies department for giving me the opportunity to volunteer at La Hesperia.

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Investigating Water Quality in Batey Libertad, Dominican Republic
Tanya Martinez, Environmental Studies '07

Introduction
I learned of and visited Batey Libertad for the first time through a student organized service/learning trip my sophomore year. Before that initial trip I was unaware of what a batey was and the injustices Haitians face in the Dominican Republic. Since then I ve led a service/learning trip to the batey and have become deeply committed to the community. A batey is a residential settlement of agricultural workers on or near a plantation. Residency in bateys is generally temporary and dependent on the planting season and where work is available. Needless to say, people who live in bateys and work on plantations are extremely poor. Environmental conditions in bateys are precarious at best; generally there is little or no electricity, no running water and potable water is either scarce or non existent, sanitation is a nightmare, and disease and even hunger are rampant. In the Dominican Republic, most of the workers who live in bateys are Haitian or of Haitian descent. This is an important characteristic of the demographic because for many historical and contemporary reasons Dominicans and Haitians have a turbulent relationship. Dominican society is unwelcoming of Haitians and to this day there exists tensions and practices comparable to those of the U.S. s own Jim Crow era. The residents of bateys are some of the most marginalized people in Dominican society.

Many of the characteristics I used to describe bateys in general are true of Batey Libertad. Presently, a little under 300 Haitian and Dominican families coexist in the batey; the population is about 70% Haitian and 30% Dominican. Most of the women in the community solely speak Haitian Creole (this occurs because they can exist in the community without ever having to speak or learn Spanish) and all of the men and school aged children speak Spanish fluently. Uncharacteristic of bateys; many of Batey Libertad s residents are permanent, which has allowed for a more organized and structured community. Batey Libertad has an established community leader, Papito, who took on this role in the late 1980s after the collapse of the sugar industry in the DR. Batey Libertad has latrines, no running water, and electricity comes and goes. Another uncharacteristic feature of Batey Libertad is that its main road leads to a major highway, allowing for more access into and out of the community. For this reason, Batey Libertad is accustomed to having visitors, researchers, community service groups, and students around.

My research consisted of investigating the practices, knowledge, and beliefs concerning water use in Batey Libertad. I conducted this research project because I wanted to in part are or at least indirectly address some of the batey s most persistent issues which are (1) the lack of access to basic amenities, (2) diseases and ailments due to and/or aggravated by poor infrastructure, and (3) serious social and environmental justice issues. I intend to submit my research to the NGO Zanmi Batey (an NGO that works closely with Batey Libertad) so that it can better cater to the needs of the community.

Methodology
I obtained my data by conducting formal surveys and through observation. The surveys were conducted with the assistance of a translator. I arranged for a translator because I do not speak Haitian Creole, but it was also helpful to have a community member escort me around even when I was able to conduct the interviews myself in Spanish. I feel that individuals were less skeptical of me and the questions I asked because I was assisted by someone they knew and trusted. I randomized who I would administer the survey to by visiting every third home. I also learned a lot by just participating in everyday life in the community. I lived with one of the families and participated as much as I could; this included eating with the family, using the latrines, washing clothes, cooking, cleaning, bathing in the river and under the gutters when it rained, and engaging in serious and playful conversations with community members of all ages.

Results
I conducted 42 surveys. Of the 42 people I interviewed, 30 were born in Haiti. One of the major insights of the survey was learning where community members obtained their drinking water. Of the 42 people I surveyed half said they consistently buy bottled water for drinking, 2 consistently drank of the community water tank, 8 from the water at the near by rice mill, 6 drank from the water tank when they did not have money to buy water, 4 drank water from the rice mill or water tanks, and 1 drank water indiscriminately. This is to say that only half of the people I interviewed are consistently drinking purified water. It is also important to note that the water at the rice mills and water tanks are the same, just located in different places. This also happens to be the water I bathed with and in which I found tadpoles swimming. The other half of the people I interviewed are drinking this water at least some of the time. Another interesting find was that 33/42 of the people interviewed told me that they drink rain water and 17 of these people said they consistently drank bottled water. This was an interesting find because before actually observing this I had not realized that the people of the batey drank rain water. Some people also expressed a religious or spiritual reason for drinking the water or at least believing it was safe to do so.

I also found that 12 of the 42 people interviewed did not know why people would want to purify water, 22 had a sense (even if they technically did not know why) that purified water was better for an individual or that untreated water could make an individual sick, and 8 believed that people purified water to kill microbes. It is interesting to note that 6 of the people who did not know why people purified water identified themselves as people who consistently buy purified water for drinking.

While in the batey I and another EVST student (Adenike Adeyeye) constructed a map of the batey which simply outlined the residences, latrines, and water sources. This map helped cue us in to two basic trends: (1) people who live closer to the main road have lived in the batey longer than those who live further away, and (2) those that live nearer to the main road have more/ better access to potable water than those who live further.

Discussion
This investigation truly shed light on some of the most basic, everyday practices concerning water use in the Batey Libertad, and some of my experiences in the batey demonstrated why knowing even the most basic information is important. While I was in the batey a group of American scientists and students arrived to do chemical water tests. They did not speak the language, they did not stay in the community, and they did not get accurate or reliable information from the people. There was a complete disconnect between this group of Americans and the community. Had they actually spent time in the community and gotten to know the people, they would ve known where all the water sources were and what people actually used and for what. I coincidentally now have all of that information. This experience was truly invaluable and I am grateful to have been given to opportunity to undertake the project.

The next steps I would like to take are: (1) conducting my own or contracting someone to conduct chemical analysis of the water, (2) investigating the role religion and spiritual beliefs play in their water practices, (3) conducting more surveys to have a larger sample size, and (4) using GIS to accurately map some of the trends that were found.

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Building and Understanding of the Avifauna of Suriname
John Mittermeier, Environmental Studies '08

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Coalbed Methane Impacts on Wyoming Economy and Ecosystems
Ashley Roberts, Environmental Studies '07

Natural gas is often perceived as a “better” energy source than coal because of its lower sulfur content and milder impacts on the environment in comparison to large-scale strip mining. During summer of 2006, I investigated the impacts of coalbed methane (CBM) development. I was fortunate enough to have internships with two fabulous organizations in Sheridan, Wyoming. I split my time between the Coalbed Methane Coordination Coalition (CBMCC) and the Powder River Basin Resource Council (PRBRC). Each organization provided invaluable information, contacts, and resources as well as unique a perspective on coalbed methane (CBM) development in the Powder River Basin.

Through this wonderful experience, funded by the Environmental Studies Summer Internship Award, I developed a project that focused on the effects of CBM produced water. Currently, direct discharge to drainages, in-channel reservoirs, off channel reservoirs/pits and evaporation atomizers are all used for water storage and disposal. Each option has both benefits and draw-backs, however more information about the water’s effect on soils and vegetation is valuable for all.

I designed study of soil, water and vegetation in several drainages in the Powder River Basin. I located six drainages in the Powder River Basin representative of common drainage geologies in the area. I made three drainages pairs based on the deep and surface geology, soil series, and location. One drainage in each pair received only precipitation and flood event waters, while the partner received CBM discharge in addition to historical water sources.

The data will be analyzed for statistical significant variations between drainage pairs and among CBM affected sites and those with only historical water influence. The comparison between drainages with respect to similar soil and discharge will lend information on which soils and geology might be more susceptible to long-term damage by certain discharge practices. The long-term effects of the CBM water discharge on the land are a primary concern of this study. The information may help landowners make more informed decisions about water storage on their property resulting in sustainable long-term land use.

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Water Quality Solutions: From Training to Design and Implementation; Germany and El Rosario, Honduras
Katherine Rostkowski, Environmental Engineering '07

The project involved two phases. Phase I of my summer work was a research internship at the Institute for Urban Water Management in Germany. Experimental work included laboratory and small-scale experiments. The doctoral student introduced me to new analytical devices and research approaches. I was fully integrated into the research team and helped with the design of a pilot system for testing. The training that I received in Germany allowed me to approach the problem in El Rosario more confidently. I was able to better prepare my experimentation and analytical tests, as well as more skilled in performing them.

The villages surrounding El Rosario in the Department of Yoro were assigned to the Yale Student Chapter of Engineers Without Borders (EWB-YSC). Since 1986, Americans Caring, Teaching and Sharing (ACTS) have been visiting the area and facilitating projects that improve sanitation. EWB-YSC’s assessment trip in August 2005 included the collection of water samples in El Rosario. At that time, all of the water quality tests returned positive for fecal coliform. A physician of ACTS, disclosed to our team that gastrointestinal disease has been a problem in the region for as long as he could remember.

A plan for systematic sampling, using hand-drawn maps of the water distribution system in El Rosario from the previous visit, was designed prior to arrival in Honduras. The Most Probable Number (MPN) method using Colilert Pre-dispensed MPN 10 mL tubes was the technique used to quantify the total coliforms and E. coli in the samples. Colilert, an EPA approved method for drinking water testing, uses ONPG (O-Nitrophenyl-β-d-galactopyranoside) and MUG (4-Methylumbelliferyl-β-d-glucuronide) for the target microbes, total colifroms and E. coli. Dilutions of the samples were incubated and observed for indicators of total coliforms and E. coli.

The presence of total coliforms at large magnitudes (103-105 organisms per ml) was confirmed in all cases. However, no tubes tested positive for the presence of E.coli, indicating a low magnitude (<3 organisms per ml). Total coliforms are primarily harmless bacteria that can live in soil and water. However, total coliforms in large quantities are often an indicator of fecal contamination, according to the EPA. Thus, the question remains whether the results, indicating large quantities of total coliforms in the drinking water system, explicitly conclude contamination. To determine this, further experimentation is needed to identify the specific bacteria that is present.

Water and soil samples in the area of the water source were collected and transported to Yale University laboratories for further testing. Extensive pathogen testing on the soil is planned. In addition, any coliforms that are present in water samples will be cultivated to specifically identify what bacteria is in the water. This data will allow the determination of whether water contamination is affecting public health. Depending on the results, a low-tech water treatment option for El Rosario’s current water system will be designed and submitted to ACTS for community implementation.

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Adapting Environmental Law and Governmental Structures to Emerging Technologies; Internship with the Environmental Law Institute in Washington, D.C.
Betsy Scherzer, Environmental Engineering '07

This summer I had the good fortune to work at the Environmental Law Institute, a premier, nonpartisan environmental research think tank, located in Washington, D.C. My work this summer helped advance their mission (and mine) to improve environmental protection law, policy and management. In the process, I learned invaluable lessons about environmental NGO operations, D.C. politicking, and most importantly, about my many fascinating research topics.

I was hired to primarily help research air pollution policies and the adaptation of existing environmental law and governmental structure to emerging technologies. My work would help develop innovative governance, changing inflexible legal and policy regimes and attitudes. My summer, however, ended up involving much more.

I researched air pollution, focusing on indoor air quality, and even had the privilege of attending a conference on indoor air pollution efforts lead by experts. My efforts on indoor air pollution led to a new assignment: researching and summarizing the existing and proposed state laws on high-performance school initiatives.

I helped with an environmental justice toolkit for community activists at the Mexican border. I researched and sought funding for Conservation Thresholds for Land Use Planners, a popular Environmental Law Institute publication promoting use of properly sized and maintained buffers, patches, corridors and other best practices for various ecological habitats. I helped examine the efficacy of environmental management courses taught in Karnataka in the hopes of improving corporate environmental practices of various Indian companies.

Then, I worked on my biggest project yet, helping a senior attorney in a pinch- to produce a United Nations Environmental Programme report on dams. With my interest in renewable energy, I jumped at the opportunity, researching and writing up original case studies on hydroelectric dams around the world, focusing on various monitoring, compliance and enforcement schemes.

When not working to help my many bosses, I enjoyed the many perks of being an Environmental Law Institute intern. I read all the daily wire environmental news services. I attended “summer school courses” and participated in conference calls. I sat in on a meeting with Chilean government sustainable forestry leaders. Most exciting of all, I got to take notes and report back on a special all-day conference held at the Woodrow Wilson Center for International Scholars on Media Coverage of Climate Science.

My summer at the Environmental Law Institute opened my eyes to the world of environmental law and policy, allowing me to complement my current environmental engineering studies. I gained insight into the world of environmental non-profits, met wonderful coworkers, and honed my research and analytical skills. Meanwhile, I made contacts that will aid my future career and learned policies critical to full exploration of my technical senior project. Thank you Environmental Studies!

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Challenging the Idea of Water Quality; The Ganges River, Varanasi, India
Mirko Serkovic, Environmental Studies '07

I spent last summer in Varanasi, India doing research for my Senior Essay on how religion influences the way residents of Varanasi understand the pollution in the river and its potential dangers.

Varanasi is one of India’s holiest cities and a major centre for religious pilgrimage. The unique way in which Hindus value the river Ganges causes most people to pay little attention to the pollution in the river, firmly believing that the Ganges will eventually clean and rejuvenate itself. Faithful residents worship the Ganges every sunrise – they regard the river as being their mother and as having a purificatory power that is able to wash away their sins. For faithful Hindus, the notions of ‘purity’ and ‘cleanliness’ are entirely independent from each other – something that is ‘clean’ is not necessarily ‘pure’, while something “pure” could be “unclean” at the same time. Ganga’s purity is regarded as completely transcendental and already fixed by a cosmological order, while her physical uncleanliness is transitory. The continuous discharge of organic waste does not challenge the purity of the river.

This has caused people to believe that, in a similar way, the river can clean itself from pollution and has resulted in a critical deterioration of its water quality. Hinduism makes no connection between the notions of ‘purity’ and ‘cleanliness’ – something that is ‘impure’ could be ‘clean’, while something that is ‘unclean’ could be ‘pure’ at the same time. Moreover, because over 60,000 residents worship the Ganges every sunrise by taking a holy bath in the water, these series of beliefs has also negative effects on the public health of the population, severely exposing them to water-borne diseases like cholera and typhoid, as well as to various skin disorders. It is also believed that having your ashes immersed into the river after death will enable you to reach salvation or nirvana, where you achieve liberation from the physical world. The bodies of those who cannot afford cremation are directly thrown into the river.

These interpretations have caused people to completely overlook the polluted state of the river and its potential dangers. Worshippers and other heavy users of the river water are seriously exposed to water-borne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid, as well as skin disorders. The biggest cause of pollution is untreated sewage. 200 million liters of untreated sewage are discharged daily into the Ganges in Varanasi through openly visible drains. Reports state that the most polluted parts of the river contain 40,000 times the level of fecal matter acceptable for bathing water, while dissolved oxygen has already reached dangerously low levels.

Religious behavior in Varanasi, therefore, has the potential for serious negative public health consequences. Through my research I found out that these religious discourses are very much still alive in the Hindu masses of Varanasi. Most worshippers are confused about the actual state of pollution in the river and continue to take a regular dip. Some people have heard about others with skin disorders resulting from bathing, for example, but are confused because so many people still bathe regularly and are not at all affected. What is worse, because worshippers usually start their day with a dip in the river and because of the limited availability of water in the city, their morning dip becomes their only hygienic bath for the day. In this way, dependence on the river is not only a spiritual matter, but also one of survival. Those who depend on the water the most are the boatmen, laundrymen, and fishermen who work along the banks of the Ganges. Away from home during the day, water from the Ganges is their only readily available source for use in drinking, bathing, and brushing teeth. Popular religious discourse has made them believe it is adequate to use this water untreated.

Hindu discourses generally sip into popular culture – so this system of beliefs can be found across people of different religious groups. Muslims, even though the Ganges is no god to them, are also aware and believe in the purificatory powers of the river. Moreover, their religious texts state that any flowing water is pure, and this causes them to overlook the state of pollution in the river. Jains and Sikhs – whose religions stemmed out from Hinduism – also regard the Ganges as a god in the same way Hindus do, even though there is no direct reference to it in their religious texts. Converted Christians reject any connection with the river and have no direct relationship with it.

With the Indian government caught up in a seemingly perpetual bureaucratic entanglement, local NGOs abusing the image of the Ganges and its spiritual importance to draw funds from abroad, and a population with strong religious values and traditions, the 60,000 worshippers that make it to the Ganges daily seem to be doomed to extinction. An innovative and successful solution to this problem would require honoring the religious significance of the river to figure out a way to stop the pollution, inform those exposed about the potential dangers of the water, and involve them in a cleanup campaign that takes into account both the population’s religious and basic hygienic needs.

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