I am exploring ways in which psychology can be used in environmental education. Environmentalists can use this nontraditional pairing of fields to increase awareness and reduce human behavior that damages the environment. In particular, the newly emerging field of "ecopsychology" creates a more holistic understanding of the human relationship with nature. Because the goals of environmental education often reach beyond the mere acquisition of factual knowledge, psychological theory is effective in promoting environmental values and a personal connection to nature. The work being done in ecopsychology today provides an interesting starting point for a more psychologically grounded form of environmental education.

I address these topics in the design of an upper level outdoor education program for the Vermilion County Conservation District (VCCD) of Vermilion County, Illinois. During the school year the VCCD works in conjunction with local school districts to offer outdoor education programs to every fifth and sixth grade student in the county. The primary objective of these programs is to provide an introduction to conservation education in an outdoor setting. This supplementary form of environmental education helps to break the monotony of the classroom for both the students as well as the instructors. Students spend five days of "outdoor school" in either Kennekuk County Park or Forest Glen County Park. Since the outdoor school program began 28 years ago, the VCCD has played a large role in the environmental education of the county's middle school students.

Despite the popularity and longevity of the outdoor school program, the VCCD has made no effort to expand its educational offerings to the high school level. To address this issue I have designed an outdoor education program for high school students which will build upon the success of the district's other educational programs. On an administrative level the goal of this pilot project is to persuade the executive director of the VCCD to establish a new outdoor education program for high school students. The primary cognitive goal of the program is to promote a greater awareness of how natural resources are used in Vermilion County. The affective goals of the program are to help students develop their own set of environmental values and to promote each student's personal connection to nature.

The curriculum design applies current psychological theory to achieve these goals. Katherine Emmons' model of positive environmental action is applied to promote changes in the students' environmentally damaging behavior. Laura Sewall's theory of perception modification is used to help students broaden their visual perceptions of the natural world. Stephen Kellert's typology of environmental values is applied to address the variety of ways in which students place value on the natural world. These theories and others were used to implicitly incorporate psychological elements into the program's activities. The curriculum is designed to use the outdoor setting to its highest potential by fostering a sense pride, responsibility, and ownership of the parks themselves.

Outdoor programs like the one described here are highly valuable in fostering a sense of connection to the natural world. These programs benefit from setting specific goals and taking psychologically oriented steps to achieve these goals. Psychology has been an effective tool in promoting traditional forms of indoor learning, but the ability of psychology to promote learning need not stop at the classroom door. Psychological theory and methodology are finding their way into nontraditional forms of outdoor education as well. This new approach gives a more holistic structure to the cognitive and affective components of environmental education and produces a more environmentally literate student body in the process.

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Myopic Lobstermen in the Face of Disaster:
A Look at the Swan`s Island, Maine Lobster Fishery

Julie Brackin

Majors: American Studies and STEV  

The 350 year-round residents of Swan`s Island depend on the success of its lobster industry, yet choose to disregard the threat of the Long Island Sound disaster. Swan`s Island is located five miles off the coast of Maine and is comprised of approximately 6000 acres of land. There are 75 full time lobstermen who earn up to 100,000 dollars a year. Lobstering is the heart of the island`s social structure. Island men work to take over their father`s docks, while island women marry off the island or marry a local lobsterman. When necessary every family member participates in lobster catching.

Although the Maine fishery pulled up record numbers of lobsters through the 90s, the summer of 1999 brought disaster to the Long Island Sound. Lobstermen in the eastern portion of the sound began pulling up a high number of dead or dying lobsters early in the summer. By fall, mortality rates hit 100% in the western end of the sound. The events of the summer of 1999 left the 1,300 Long Island Sound lobstermen wondering about their future. One 18-year veteran, Pete Lauda, stated "It`s like somebody pulled the carpet out from under my feet."

But the Swan`s Island lobstermen are still not worried, seemingly unmoved by such a dramatic catastrophe. They have based this decision on information obtained by one of the island lobstermen. Spencer Joyce, a member of one of the island`s oldest and most respected families, called a Connecticut lobsterman inquiring about a boat that was for sale. During their conversation, Joyce learned that this man felt the devastation of the sound fishery was due to pollution and believed that the government was covering up illegal dumping, the true cause of the disease. The Long Island Sound lobsterman stated that when he goes out in his boat syringes, rags, and human feces float freely. Joyce related the colorful description given by the Long Island Sound fisherman to the rest of the island. From this, the island made a collective decision that the problems in the Long Island Sound are the result of an isolated problem.

The residents of Swan`s Island rested their worries and muted taking action based on the opinion and tales of a lobsterman from Long Island Sound. The reaction of the islanders seems ignorant, however once the development of the island and its lobster industry is studied patterns become clear.

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The Silent Leader:
Rachel Carson`s Role in the Emergence of the
Modern Environmental Movement

Susan E. Brown

Majors: American Studies and STEV  

Environmental historians invariably cite the publication of Silent Spring as the fuse that sparked an explosion of newly created national environmental organizations and legislation in the late 1960s and early 1970s. However, they have virtually silenced the voices of the hundreds of ordinary individuals who joined local organizations and took a stand against the unregulated use of pesticides earlier in the decade. This "grassroots" organizing during the 1960s produced a new community of environmentalists that departed from the traditional conservationist agendas and organizations. Local leaders in the decentralized "modern environmental movement" turned to Rachel Carson`the ultimate voice of authority and the original voice of protest`for guidance. Through letters, articles and cartoons that responded to Silent Spring in the year or two following its publication, supporters conveyed their admiration for Carson`s courage in challenging the powerful forces of the chemical industry and the government, their respect for her authority as a scientist and author, and their desire to gain her approval for their own actions. Further, the letters, articles, and cartoons reveal the emergence of Rachel Carson, the icon and the rise of Rachel Carson, the role model and heroine for women both young and old. The presence of Rachel Carson was so great in the public consciousness that her physical absence did not seem to diminish the perception that she was the courageous leader of a new movement. Carson rarely appeared in public, accepted only a handful of speaking engagements, and did not make any efforts to organize groups. Instead, she served largely as an advisor or a consultant and chose to work within her capacity as a writer. Without taking any action of her own beyond writing Silent Spring, Carson`s presence as a leader supplied a sense of cohesion that enabled the actions taken by the individual groups across the country to eventually crystallize into a widespread social movement.

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Water Resource Management in the Beijing Metropolitan Area

Isaac Cheng

Majors: Economics and STEV  

Snow melt and the summer storm runoff can cause severe flooding in North China. Yet, the regular scenario is one of water shortage. During the season of high water demand, basin-wide efficiency in the Beijing metropolitan area approaches 100%. Simultaneously, industrial, residential, and agricultural demands for water are growing. Population is increasing as well as per capita consumption of water, and shortages have been projected for 2010. Pollution rendering water unusable is also a critical problem. Water shortage has led to higher concentration of pollutants and affected local habitats. China has responded in a radical way`complementing water-supply projects with water legislation and market measures. Experiments with rational pricing and financial penalties have increased efficiency.

One place where China could make great gains is in water allocation. In competing demands for water, it would seem natural to provide more resources to high-value uses and for equity's sake, to recapture some of those gains and redistribute them to loser stakeholders. This would also require considerations of the externality of higher industrial pollution. However, China has shown itself unwilling to redistribute even when water extraction approaches a zero-sum game. Furthermore, charges to industry far outweigh water charges for agriculture, although industry use returns more money. No detailed, comprehensive system of water allocation exists.

Solutions include water markets, or real rational pricing, or a system of water rights. But these are not likely to be installed soon because of political realities. Reallocation between agricultural and industrial use has been blocked by fears of social instability in agricultural regions, lack of administrative connections between the proper water agencies, and an unwillingness to depend on foreign food imports.

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Agricultural Architecture and a History of Land Use
on Rollwood Farm, Guilford, Connecticut

Rachel Gruzen

Majors: Architecture and STEV  

Architecture is a cultural artifact of man's relationship to the environment. A sensitivity to nature is reflected in a building's response to geology and natural formations of a site, the natural resources in a structure's materials, and the systems and technologies developed to manage the building and its surroundings. Environment informs the design of the manmade world, and the degree to which this occurs is dependent upon man's transforming values and perspective toward the natural world.

To better understand this insight into the built landscape, I investigated Rollwood Farm in Guilford, Connecticut, and the two, one hundred and thirty year-old barns on the site. Evidence of environmental sensitivity is in the climatic and geological influences on the barns' location and design; the crops cultivated and natural resources used on the farm; and the technologies, or management systems, developed in response--or disregard--to the ecosystems of the site. The transformations of the farm and barns over time recount a history of man and environment influencing each other in both symbiotic and antagonistic ways.

While a written thesis explores the historical and cultural significance of architecture and its relationship to the environment, an architecture design project explores future interactions with the land. The barns on the site have had multiple functions over one hundred and thirty years, including service as cow barns, hay storage, horse stables, and automobile showroom; each use reflects a history of changing cultural attitudes toward the land. The challenge of the design project is to transform the barns into their new function--craftsman`s center with workspaces and library--while maintaining the history of the two buildings and their integrity as utilitarian structures. The introduction of new materials and technologies should be balanced with the reuse of old materials and systems such as the manure troughs and ventilation shafts. The goal is to embrace the progress and technology that allow for increased efficiency in energy and material flow management, while also celebrating the history of craftsmanship and human labor of which these barns are a symbol. In studying the history of humans' relationship to the land through architecture, the hope is to better inform future architecture of its responsibility to and dependence on the natural environment.

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"`Waste is Regarded as Almost Criminal":
Waste Elimination at the Ford Motor Company, 1919-1946

Michael Jensen

Majors: American Studies and STEV  

This is a description and analysis of the industrial processes and procedures which the Ford Motor Company associated under the title of Waste Elimination. Consisting primarily of byproduct manufacture and industrial salvage, Waste Elimination also applies to the continued process of examining and optimizing the use of natural resources. Henry Ford himself was concerned with the efficient and complete use of raw material, which was being extracted and formed into consumer products at an unrivalled pace. The integrated efforts of the company, as guided by its famous head, became the most well known example of conservation in industry for their day. Waste Elimination showed that such measures could simultaneously increase profit and conserve natural resources.

The context and fate of the Waste Elimination program are also discussed. Although the program was part of the efficiency movement of the late 'teens and 'twenties, it was as individual as was Ford, and became less associated with the wider movement as time progressed. Certain aspects of the program, particularly wood utilization, became outdated and unprofitable; certain others were undertaken with the likelihood that they would not be financially self-supporting. This led to a reevaluation during the massive period of change that occurred at Ford Motor with the end of World War II and new management under Henry Ford II. At this time, some programs were dropped and the emphasis which the elder Henry had placed on using waste material, was generally discontinued.

Waste Elimination has in the past two decades again received substantial attention, and the activity of Ford Motor in the early century carries numerous, significant parallels and implications for current efforts toward integration, efficiency, and waste reduction. The historical Waste Elimination program is a concerted and coordinated example of the realization of conservation goals. At the same time, the program illustrates both positively and negatively the need for flexibility and adaptation in the use of wastes as industrial feedstocks. Ford's example shows the role of industry, taking initiative in conservation and societal issues, and acting on more than the profit motive alone. Finally, the knowledge of history lends perspective to the modern discussions of similar issues, adding both weight and perhaps a sense of humility to modern industrial conservation.

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Volkswagen Beetle to Ford Excursion:
Baby Boomers, the Automobile Industry
and the Rise of the Sport Utility Vehicle

Henry Kessler

Majors: History and STEV  

From the time that the World War II jeep was transformed into a passenger vehicle in the late 1940s until the early 1980s, sport utility vehicles supplied a niche market of outdoorsmen and farmers. In 1980, after the oil crises of the 1970s, both domestic trucks and cars lost ground to imports. At this point in time far more domestic cars were produced than domestic trucks. Beginning in the mid-1980s, by concentrating on the production and sale of light trucks, the Big Three have managed to hold the level of imported trucks below 21% from 1985 to 1999, as overall sales have steadily increased. Overseas manufacturers, however, have been able to increase their market share in the passenger car market from approximately 28% in 1985 to 46% in 1999, while overall sales have virtually remained stagnant. By 1996, Ford produced more light trucks than cars and in November of 1997 overall light truck sales surpassed those of passenger cars for the first time since passenger car sales were curtailed during World War II. With profit margins as high as $20,000, SUVs have helped to keep the Big Three profitable.

My essay places the SUV in a cultural and historical context. Beginning with the birth of the automobile culture in the early 20th century, I identify changes in automobile design and the automobile industry. I trace the development of the traditional family vehicle from the station wagon to the minivan and the SUV. I then unpack what makes the SUV different from these other family vehicles. I provide information about certain governmental policies that served as subsidies for the production and sale of SUVs. Finally, I offer hypotheses for why consumers fell in love with the SUV and what the SUV says about American culture in general.

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Coal Mines and Mountaintops:
The Debate Over Surface Mining Regulation in West Virginia, 1900 - 2000

Katherine Scharf

Majors: History and STEV  

In July 1998, a handful of residents of West Virginia's southern coalfields joined with a local environmental group to sue the government agencies responsible for the regulation of the state's surface coal mining industry. While industry officials were "shocked" by a lawsuit that seemed to come from "out of the blue," a closer look at the history of surface mining regulation in West Virginia suggests that this contemporary protest has considerable precedent.

From the so-called "pre-law years of the early twentieth century when regulation efforts came from the state legislatures, to the abolition movement of the 1970s, and onward through the subsequent years of regulation under the federal Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act, the debate over surface mining continued to rage over a few central questions: do surface coal operations create negative environmental impacts` To what degree should surface mine operators be allowed to alter the landscape of West Virginia`

In the current debate, government regulators have turned to ecological indicators to determine the environmental impact of surface mining. But for most West Virginians, the answer to these questions stems from personal values and experience. As a survey of letters to the editor from a coalfield community newspaper attests, popular consensus about the legalities of surface mining is swayed not by environmental science, but by concerns about the decline of coal jobs, about the intervention of "outside" regulators and "out-of-state" environmentalists, and about the aesthetics of a minescape--all concerns that have played important and dynamic roles in the history of surface mine regulation.

As a historical inquiry into popular environmental perception, this paper reflects a variety of sources--gleaned from interviews with key lawmakers and reclamation experts, from the public and private archives of abolition movement veterans, from media coverage of the current lawsuit, as well as a range of secondary sources.

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Rethinking the Greater Yellowstone Coordinating Committee:
Improving Ecosystem Management in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem

Geoffrey G. Suttle

Majors: Political Science and STEV  

The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, a nineteen-million-acre region in the Central Rocky Mountains of the United States that includes Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks, six national forests, three national wildlife refugees, and additional public and private lands, faces growing threats to its long-term stability as a result of human activities in and around the area. The Greater Yellowstone Coordinating Committee (GYCC), an interagency organization, was created in 1964 to facilitate cooperation and coordination among the National Park Service, National Forest Service, and other government agencies in the management of this ecosystem. However, GYCC has been ineffective in achieving this goal. This report examines the reasons for this failure and suggests ways that GYCC might improve its ability to ensure the sustainability of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. The analysis is based on a review of GYCC publications, internal GYCC and other governmental documents, published research reports, and interviews with representatives of the Park Service, Forest Service, and non-governmental organizations.

The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem faces broad-ranging threats resulting from resource extraction and ranching, an unprecedented increase in visitation and virtually unchecked development coupled with unsound management. The region suffers continued degradation as a result of destruction and fragmentation of wildlife habitat, increasing pollution, and disruption of fundamental natural processes ranging from food webs to the cycling of nutrients. GYCC has been unable to develop, implement, and gain support for policies and programs designed to address these problems at the ecosystem level. This has resulted from a lack of strong leadership and clear direction, jurisdictional limitations, decentralized management systems and structure, inadequate scientific data, budgetary limitations, and a failure to solicit the involvement and support of all pertinent groups. These problems have been compounded by rapidly changing socio-economic conditions, anti-government sentiment, the highly fragmented jurisdictional make-up of the area, and the increasingly politicized nature of the policy process.

This paper will suggest several changes to improve GYCC`s ability to manage the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. These include implementing a set of clearly defined management objectives, establishing a standardized interagency information system, increasing efforts to collect scientific data, and including all pertinent groups in the policy process. Because of its historical significance as the world`s first national park, its symbolic value as a role model for natural resource management, its scientific value as one of the largest and last remaining intact temperate ecosystems in the world, and its unparalleled natural beauty and grandeur, the management of Yellowstone National Park and its surrounding lands must be rethought.

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