Admissions

www.yale.edu/graduateschool/admissions/

Application for admission to any of the Graduate School's programs should begin in the summer or fall of the academic year before the one in which students propose to register. Application materials for all programs in the Graduate School may be viewed on the Graduate School's Web site or obtained by writing to Graduate School Admissions, Yale University, PO Box 208323, New Haven CT 06520-8323 (graduate.admissions@yale.edu).

It is important to note that application for admission to the Graduate School may be made to only one department or program. The individual program descriptions listed in this book, in the application brochure, and on the Graduate School Web site explain the prerequisites for each department and program. Applicants must state their intended department specialization when requesting application materials. Completed applications, including three letters of recommendation, transcripts, standardized test scores, and the non-refundable application fee, are due by January 2, 2002. Applications received by December 1, 2001, are eligible for a reduced application fee.

Students who seek a professional degree should write to one of the University's professional schools. Holders of American Ph.D. or Sc.D. degrees, or their foreign equivalents, are not eligible for admission to the Graduate School in the field in which they have already earned a degree. They may apply in other fields and are also eligible to apply for admission as Special Students, for nondegree study (please see Nondegree Study below for more information). Students interested in postdoctoral appointments should see the information under Degree Requirements below.

All applicants are required to submit official results of the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) General Test, which is administered in the United States and abroad by the Educational Testing Service. This examination should be taken no later than the November testing date. Some departments and programs also require scores from a GRE Subject Test; consult the individual program of study listings for those requirements.

Applicants whose native language is not English must present evidence of proficiency in English by satisfactorily completing the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). This examination should be taken no later than the November testing date. The TOEFL requirement is waived only for applicants who have successfully attended for at least two years a university where English is the language of instruction.

Students who do not demonstrate sufficient proficiency in English may be retested and/or asked to take courses in English for speakers of other languages. A higher level of proficiency will be required in order for students to serve as teaching fellows.

All students who accept offers of admission to Ph.D. programs and whose native language is not English must present acceptable scores on the Test of Spoken English (TSE) or SPEAK test before being appointed as teaching fellows with instructional responsibilities. The TOEFL and TSE are administered in the United States and abroad by the Educational Testing Service. The SPEAK test is administered by Yale's English Language Institute.

International students who accept offers of admission will be required to give appropriate evidence of necessary financial support for one or two academic years, depending upon their program of study, before the University will be able to issue visa documents.

Applicants will usually be notified of action concerning admission during the month of March. All entering students must have obtained the bachelor's degree or its foreign equivalent. Offers of admission are contingent on students providing official evidence of prior degrees at registration the following September. Students who are not able to provide such evidence will not be permitted to register. Those who have been engaged in graduate work at Yale or another university must also present an official transcript giving evidence of degree(s) awarded and/or satisfactory completion of the previous year's work.

Applicants who have previously been denied admission three times will not be allowed to apply again.
 

Programs of Study

Full-Time Degree Candidacy
Most students enrolled in the Graduate School are registered for full-time study as they pursue a Ph.D. or master's degree program. These students devote their full effort to course work, preparation for qualifying examinations, gaining teaching experience, and the research and writing leading to the completion of the dissertation.

Part-Time Study
In rare circumstances, qualified individuals who are unable to devote their full time to graduate study may apply and be admitted as part-time students in either doctoral or terminal master's programs. For more complete information about part-time study, see Degree Requirements.

Nondegree Study
Qualified individuals who wish to study at the graduate level as nondegree candidates may be admitted to the Division of Special Registration (DSR). Admission to the DSR is for one term or for one year only and carries with it no commitment by the Graduate School for further study. Students admitted for the academic year must demonstrate satisfactory academic performance in the first term in order to register for the second term. Students in the DSR are issued transcripts indicating the appropriate credit for work completed.

Application procedures for the DSR are the same as for students seeking admission to regular degree programs.

DSR students engaged solely in course work are identified as special students. Special students admitted for part-time study are charged tuition on a per-course basis, whether for credit or audit. See page 378 for a schedule of tuition and fee charges. Students admitted to the DSR as special students are not eligible for financial aid, including federal and most nonfederal student loans.

More advanced graduate students who are degree candidates at other universities and who wish to do full-time dissertation-level research or a combination of research and course work at Yale may be admitted to the DSR as Visiting Affiliated Research Graduate Students. Such students are charged full tuition. A limited amount of tuition assistance based on need may be available, but students in this category must always pay at least $1,500 of their tuition per term. Students enrolling for the summer only are charged $750. Applicants for admission as Visiting Affiliated Research Graduate Students should complete the Applicant's Financial Statement and should submit any other documentation that would clearly establish their need for tuition assistance. Support beyond tuition in the form of fellowship stipends or teaching fellowships or research assistantships is not available.

In certain circumstances, advanced graduate students who are degree candidates at another university and who have made arrangements with a specific Graduate School faculty member for a research project under his or her direct supervision may be admitted to the DSR as Visiting Assistants in Research. Any proposal for the admission of a visiting assistant in research must be discussed by the relevant departmental director of graduate studies and the appropriate associate dean. Such students hold standard graduate student assistantship in research appointments in the faculty member's department. The appointment is funded by the faculty member. The tuition charge for students enrolled as Visiting Assistants in Research is $1,500 per term. Students enrolling for the summer only are charged $750.

Some departments at Yale have formal exchange agreements with universities in other countries that have been approved by the Graduate School. Graduate students who are admitted to Yale under such approved exchange agreements may be registered as Visiting International Exchange Students. Visiting International Exchange Students normally are not charged a tuition fee.

Students enrolled in the DSR who are subsequently admitted to degree programs may receive academic and tuition credit for work done while enrolled in the DSR, provided that the department recommends such credit and the appropriate associate dean approves.

Interdisciplinary Study
All graduate students are formally associated with one department or program but students may be encouraged to take one or more courses in a related department. Students are often advised by faculty members from more than one department during their dissertation research. Students in the Graduate School, with permission of the director of graduate studies and the relevant school, may take advantage of particular course or research opportunities in Yale College and in Yale's professional schools.

Combined and Joint-Degree Programs
The Graduate School offers students interested in African American studies, classics, and Renaissance studies an opportunity to pursue a combined Ph.D. with departments in related fields. In addition to these academic programs, there are several formal interdisciplinary Ph.D. programs in the Graduate School that students can pursue. Ad hoc programs may also be approved. A student who is interested in an ad hoc program should prepare a written proposal for review and approval by the relevant departments and associate deans.

Students are encouraged to contact the appropriate directors of graduate studies about specific opportunities for interdisciplinary study throughout the Graduate School and the University.

The Graduate School also participates in the following formal joint-degree programs with the professional schools: the J.D./M.A. and J.D./Ph.D. programs in cooperation with the Law School; the M.D./Ph.D. program in cooperation with the School of Medicine; the M.A./M.B.A. programs in cooperation with the School of Management; and the M.A./M.F.S. and M.A./M.E.S. programs in cooperation with the School of Forestry & Environmental Studies. For all joint-degree programs except the M.D./Ph.D., students are required to submit formal applications to both the professional school and the Graduate School indicating their interest in enrolling in the joint program. Individuals interested in the M.D./Ph.D. program apply directly to the School of Medicine.

Exchange Scholar Program
Graduate students in Yale Ph.D. programs may petition to enroll full-time for a term or for an academic year as exchange scholars at a number of other institutions, including the University of California at Berkeley, Brown, Chicago, Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, Princeton, and Stanford Universities, and at MIT and the University of Pennsylvania. The Exchange Scholars Program enables students to take advantage of special educational opportunities not available at their home institutions. For applications, contact the Graduate School Student Information Office, Room 139, Hall of Graduate Studies (HGS).

International Graduate Student Exchange Agreements
All international exchange agreements must be approved in advance by the Graduate School to ensure that they meet University policy and Graduate School guidelines. Departments interested in establishing an exchange program must prepare a statement that demonstrates that there is a clear academic and reciprocal need for such a program, and that the program will conform to the established guidelines for all such exchange agreements.

International Exchange Programs

Center for International and Area Studies
Fox International Fellowship Program (Moscow University; University of Cambridge; Free University, Berlin; Fudan University, Shanghai; University of Tokyo)

Council on East Asian Studies
Inter-University Center for Japanese Language Studies, Yokohama; Inter-University Board for Chinese Language Studies, Tsinghua University, Beijing; International Chinese Language Program, National Taiwan University, Taipei Tokyo University

Economic Growth Center
Research Institute for Economics and Business Administration (Kobe University, Japan)

Epidemiology and Public Health
Many internship opportunities in numerous countries across the world

French
Ecole Normale Supérieure, Paris; University of Geneva, Switzerland

Linguistics
Tokyo Metropolitan University

Philosophy, Comparative Literature, & History
The Connecticut Department of Education and the State of Baden-Württemberg Exhange-Germany

Political Science
Nuffield College, University of Oxford

Programs in Development

Council on East Asian Studies
Kyoto University, Japan

German
Free University, Berlin

History
Leiden University, Netherlands; Paris-Sorbonne, Paris VI; Royal Holloway College, University of London, England

Agrarian Studies
Amsterdam School for Social Science Research

Summer Study
Many graduate students remain in New Haven during the summer for independent study and research (see Summer Registration below). Although the Graduate School does not offer courses in the summer, a program of undergraduate courses is available, as well as an intensive program of instruction in languages, and graduate students may wish to take advantage of those programs while in New Haven. For further details on summer offerings at Yale, please contact Yale Summer and Special Programs, PO Box 208282, New Haven CT 06520-8282.

Postdoctoral Study
Holders of the doctorate and similarly qualified individuals who wish to undertake special research at Yale may be appointed as postdoctoral fellows, research affiliates, or visiting fellows by the dean of the Graduate School upon recommendation by the chair of the appropriate department. Please consult the appropriate department for further information.
 

Degree Requirements

The requirements set forth in the pages that follow are the minimum Graduate School degree requirements and apply to all degree candidates. Students should consult the listings of individual departments and programs for additional specific departmental requirements.

Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Length of Study
In most fields of study, six years should normally be sufficient for the completion of the Ph.D., although it is understood that seven years may be needed by students in fields requiring extensive field work or the mastery of difficult foreign languages. Departments and programs make every effort to design a course of study and to provide advice and guidance to make it possible for students to complete their work within six years. Normally three, or at most three and one-half, years should be devoted to the completion of predissertation requirements (courses, examinations, selection of a dissertation topic). The remaining time, typically two and one-half to three years, should be devoted to conducting research and writing the dissertation. Advanced standing that has been granted for work done in a Yale M.A./M.S. program will be counted as part of the six years (for further information, please see Transfer Credit and Advanced Standing below).

Students must register each term until the dissertation is submitted or until six years (twelve terms) of study have been completed. Students who have not completed the dissertation by the end of the sixth year of study may request a period of extended registration, by submitting a one-page petition for extended registration, the standard dissertation progress report that is required annually of all students admitted to candidacy, and a continuous registration form (see below). Before a period of extended registration is approved, the student's adviser and director of graduate studies must certify that the student is making good progress on the dissertation, will be working full-time on it during the year, and has a reasonable prospect of completing it by the end of the registration period. The Graduate School will normally approve petitions supported by these certifications for a seventh year of registration provided that the student is not employed more than twenty hours per week and will be at Yale or in another location conducive to writing the dissertation.

Part-Time Study
Students in Ph.D. programs are expected to register for full-time study. In extraordinary circumstances a student may petition the Graduate School for permission to register as a half-time student for a limited period. Students may not register for half-time study for more than three of the first four academic years they are enrolled. Thereafter, they must register full-time until the four-year tuition obligation has been satisfied. Any Ph.D. student who registers half-time at any point in his or her graduate program must pay four years of full tuition to receive the Ph.D.. Students may not register less than half-time.

Students who wish to study part-time should consult with their director of graduate studies and the appropriate associate dean to develop a proposed plan of study, so that both the student and the Graduate School have a common understanding about the time by which the requirements leading to admission to candidacy must be completed. Such a plan of study may be modified with the consent of the director of graduate studies and the associate dean. Part-time study has a five-year limit for students in terminal master's degree programs. Only candidates for terminal master's degrees may enroll less than half-time.

Noncumulative Registration
In certain areas of study, it may be necessary for a registered student to acquire an academic skill (typically, knowledge of a foreign language) that is essential for a degree requirement or for research in a particular field and for the overall progress of the dissertation but is not an inherent part of the dissertation itself. A student in this situation may request up to one year of "noncumulative registration." It is important to note that general study in a field related to or parallel with the topic of the dissertation is not appropriate for noncumulative registration.

A student who wishes to have a specific period of study designated as "noncumulative" should discuss the reasons for such a period of study with and secure prior approval from his or her associate dean. If prior authorization has been given by the Graduate School, the period of time spent in acquiring the necessary academic skill will not be counted as part of the student's six-year period of candidacy. The Continuous Registration Fee (CRF) is charged during the period of noncumulative registration. Noncumulative registration does not change the four-year full-tuition obligation. The tuition charge and any University Fellowship aid will be postponed if a student registers noncumulatively before the four-year full-tuition obligation has been satisfied.

Residence Requirement
Students seeking the Ph.D. degree are required to be in residence in the New Haven area during at least three academic years. This is an academic requirement, distinct from and independent of the tuition requirement described below. The residence requirement must normally be met within the first four years of study. Any exception to the residence requirement must be approved by the department and by the appropriate associate dean.

Tuition Requirement and the Continuous Registration Fee
All Ph.D. candidates are charged four years (eight terms) of full tuition, or proportionately less if all degree requirements, including submission of the dissertation, are completed in less than four continuous years of full-time study from the date of matriculation in the Ph.D. program. Students admitted with University Fellowships continue to be eligible for financial aid during the same period.

Once the full-tuition obligation has been completed, students are charged the Continuous Registration Fee (CRF), $240 per term in 2001-2002, until the dissertation is submitted or the terminal date is passed. Students who are permitted to register after the sixth year are also charged the CRF.

Transfer Credit and Advanced Standing
The Graduate School does not award transfer credit for graduate work completed before matriculation at Yale. A department may, with the approval of the Graduate School, waive a portion of the Ph.D. course requirement in recognition of previous graduate-level work done at Yale or elsewhere. Such a waiver does not affect the full-tuition requirement. Courses taken previously will not appear in the student's Graduate School transcript.

With the approval of the department, a student who is currently enrolled may petition for advanced standing in the Graduate School of up to one year for work completed in a Yale master's or professional doctoral program that is relevant to the student's Ph.D. program. This petition must be received by the appropriate associate dean in the Graduate School before the end of the student's first year of study in the Ph.D. program. Such students may also be offered admission with advanced standing by the department and the Graduate School. Such advanced standing will reduce the four-year tuition requirement and eligibility for Graduate School fellowship aid accordingly. The normal six-year period of registration will be similarly reduced.

Language Requirement
Language requirements are set by individual departments and programs. Specific language requirements are explained in the individual departmental listings. All departmental requirements are subject to initial approval by the Executive Committee of the Graduate School and are monitored by the divisional degree committees. A department cannot make exceptions to its own requirements without authorization by the appropriate degree committee.

The required level of proficiency in foreign languages, and the method for demonstrating it, are determined by the individual departments. Most give their own examinations. A few permit the requirement to be satisfied by passing particular courses. Students are urged to be prepared to meet language requirements at the beginning of their first year of study.

Course and Honors Requirements
The course requirements for the Ph.D. degree are set individually by each department or program. Although departments may set more stringent requirements, to meet the minimum Graduate School quality requirement for the Ph.D., students must achieve the grade of Honors in at least one full-year or two full-term graduate courses, taken after matriculation in the Graduate School and during the nine-month academic year. The Honors requirement must be met in courses other than those concerned exclusively with dissertation research and preparation.

A student who has not met the Honors requirement at the end of the fourth term of full-time study will not be permitted to register for the fifth term. In exceptional circumstances, the director of graduate studies may petition the Degree Committee, through the appropriate dean, that a student who has not met the Honors requirement be permitted to continue study. Such a petition should be made before the end of the fourth term of study in time to be considered by the Degree Committee at its meeting that term.

Qualifying Examination
Each Ph.D. student must pass a general examination, separate from course examinations, in the major subject offered and in such subordinate subjects as may be required by the department. Such examinations are described in the individual departmental listings. Students should consult with the director of graduate studies for further information about this requirement.

Prospectus
The prospectus should be viewed as a preliminary statement of what the student proposes to do in his or her dissertation and not as an unalterable commitment. The appropriate form and typical content of a prospectus inevitably vary from field to field. In most cases, however, a prospectus should contain the following information:

1. A statement of the topic of the dissertation and an explanation of its importance. What in general might one expect to learn from the dissertation that is not now known, understood, or appreciated?

2. A concise review of what has been done on the topic in the past. Specifically, how will the proposed dissertation differ from or expand upon previous work? A basic bibliography should normally be appended to this section.

3. A statement of where most of the work will be carried out-for example, in the Yale library or another library or archive, in the laboratory of a particular faculty member, or as part of a program of field work at specific sites in the United States or abroad.

4. If the subject matter permits, a tentative proposal for the internal organization of the dissertation-for example, major sections, subsections, sequence of chapters.

5. A provisional timetable for completion of the dissertation.

Although it is difficult to prescribe a standard length for the prospectus, it should be long enough to include essential information for all proposed topics but concise enough to focus clearly on the subject. About seven pages, including bibliography, should be suf-ficient in most cases.

Admission to Candidacy
Admission to candidacy indicates that the department and the Graduate School consider the student prepared to do original and independent research. Students will be admitted to candidacy when they have completed all predissertation requirements, including the dissertation prospectus. Admission to candidacy will normally take place by the end of the third year of study. Any programmatic variations from this pattern that have been approved by the Executive Committee of the Graduate School are described in the individual department statements. Teaching is required in some departments and is an expectation in all. A student who has not been admitted to candidacy at the expected time will not be permitted to register for the following term.

Dissertation
The dissertation should demonstrate the student's mastery of relevant resources and methods and should make an original contribution to knowledge in the field.

The originality of a dissertation may consist of the discovery of significant new information or principles of organization, the achievement of a new synthesis, the development of new methods or theories, or the application of established methods to new materials.

Normally, it is expected that a dissertation will have a single topic, however broadly defined, and that all parts of the dissertation will be interrelated. This does not mean that sections of the dissertation cannot constitute essentially discrete units. Dissertations in the physical and biological sciences, for example, often present the results of several independent but related experiments.

Given the diverse nature of the fields in which dissertations are written and the wide variety of topics that are explored, it is impossible to designate an ideal length for the dissertation. Clearly, however, a long dissertation is not necessarily a better one. The value of a dissertation ultimately depends on the quality of its thought and the clarity of its exposition. In consultation with their faculty advisers and directors of graduate studies, students should give serious thought to the scale of proposed dissertation topics. There should be a reasonable expectation that the project can be completed in two to three years.

In accordance with general University policy, classified or restricted research is not acceptable as part of the dissertation. Exceptions must be approved in advance by the Degree Committee.

For information about submission of the dissertation, please see pages 365-66. Students should also consult the booklet entitled Preparation and Submission of the Doctoral Dissertation, available at the Student Information Office, Room 139, Hall of Graduate Studies (HGS).

Requirements for the Degree of Master of Philosophy
The Master of Philosophy is awarded en route to the Ph.D. The minimum general requirements for this degree are that a student shall have completed all requirements for the Ph.D. except the prospectus and dissertation. Students will not generally have satisfied the requirements for the Master of Philosophy until after two years of study, except where graduate work done before admission to Yale has reduced the student's graduate course work at Yale. In no case will the degree be awarded for less than one year of residence in the Yale Graduate School. Not all departments offer the M.Phil. degree. Information regarding special departmental requirements for the degree, if any, are stated in the individual department listings.

Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts or Master of Science
Except in the case of programs listed below under terminal M.A./M.S. Degrees, students are not admitted as candidates for the Master of Arts or Master of Science degree. However, students in most doctoral departments may be awarded the M.A. or M.S. en route to the Ph.D. degree.

Although departments may set more stringent requirements, the minimum general requirements that must be met for award of the M.A. or M.S. en route are (1) completion of the first year of the program leading to the Ph.D., with grades that satisfy departmental requirements; (2) completion of one academic year in full-time residence, or the equivalent, at Yale; (3) recommendation by the department for award of the degree, subject to final review and approval by the appropriate degree committee. In no case may courses taken prior to matriculation in the Graduate School, or in Yale College or other summer programs, be applied toward the requirements for the Master of Arts or Master of Science degree.

Some departments do not offer the M.A. or M.S. en route to the Ph.D., or award it only to students who are withdrawing from the Ph.D. program. For information about this or any special departmental requirements additional to the general requirements stated above, see the departmental listings.

Students enrolled in a Ph.D. program may receive a master's degree from another department provided that it is in a related field of study and the director of graduate studies in both departments and the appropriate associate dean agree on the student's program of study prior to enrollment in courses. Courses taken toward a master's degree in another department must be part of the student's course requirement for the Ph.D., as approved by the director of graduate studies in both departments. However, such course work cannot also be counted toward a master's degree in the department to which the student was admitted. Students who wish to obtain a master's degree in a field that is not directly related to the doctoral degree must apply for a personal leave from the Ph.D. program and submit an application for admission to the master's program. Any financial aid offered to the student for a Ph.D. program may not be transferred to a master's degree course of study.

Terminal M.A./M.S. Degrees
The M.A./M.S. degrees are offered as terminal degrees in twenty-two departments and programs: African Studies, American Studies, Applied Mathematics, Archaeology, Biostatistics (Epidemiology and Public Health), Computer Science, East Asian Studies, Engineering and Applied Science, English, Germanic Languages and Literatures, History, History of Medicine and Science, International and Development Economics (IDE), International Relations, Mathematics, Medieval Studies, Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Music, Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, Russian and East European Studies, Slavic Languages and Literatures, and Statistics.

The residence and tuition requirements for a terminal M.A./M.S. degree are: a minimum of one year of full tuition and course work in residence in one-year programs, or a minimum of two years of full tuition and course work in residence in two-year programs. For information about which departments offer one-year programs and which offer two-year programs, see departmental listings.

With the approval of the department and the appropriate associate dean, a student may be admitted for part-time study toward the master's degree. In that case, tuition will be charged on a per-course basis. Part-time study does not change the one- or two-year full-tuition obligation described above. Part-time students must complete all degree requirements within five years of continuous registration.

Individual departments establish the specific course and language requirements for these degrees. Although departments may set more stringent requirements, the minimum Graduate School requirement for students admitted for M.A./M.S. degrees is an overall grade average of High Pass, including a grade of Honors in at least one full-term graduate course (for students enrolled in one-year programs), or in at least two full-term graduate courses (for students enrolled in two-year programs). No credit will be awarded toward the M.A./M.S. degree for courses taken prior to matriculation in the Graduate School, or taken in Yale or other summer programs. Students in one of Yale's professional schools who matriculate in the Graduate School to complete a joint master's degree may, however, with the permission of their director of graduate studies, count courses already completed in their professional school program toward the joint degree. See the individual program or department listings.

The master's degree may also be earned jointly with the B.A./B.S. in certain departments by students enrolled in Yale College. For further information, please see Yale College Programs of Study, available from the Office of the Dean of Yale College.

Requirements for Joint-Degree Programs
Students who are candidates for degrees in any of the joint programs sponsored by the Graduate School and Yale's professional schools must meet the requirements established by each school for the degree they are seeking. Degree requirements in the Graduate School include both the Graduate School's general requirements and any special requirements set by the relevant department or program. In all cases, the Honors requirement must be fulfilled in non-research courses offered primarily for Graduate School students, taken after matriculation in the Graduate School.

In addition to the J.D./Ph.D., J.D./M.A., and M.D./Ph.D. programs described below, joint-degree programs with other professional schools have been approved for students in International Relations and International and Development Economics. These programs are described in the departmental statements for International and Development Economics and International Relations.

J.D./Ph.D. and J.D./M.A. programs
Admission to the Graduate School joint-degree programs with the Law School, described below, requires separate admission to both schools as well as approval by the appropriate associate dean in each school, and by the director of graduate studies in the student's Graduate School department. Students may apply for admission to a joint program no later than their first year of study in a J.D., Ph.D., or two-year M.A. program, and must matriculate in the joint program no later than the beginning of their second year. Students wishing to pursue a J.D./M.A. in a one-year M.A. program must apply for admission no later than their first year of study in the J.D. program and must matriculate in the M.A. program as a joint-degree candidate.

In the J.D./Ph.D. program, the first year of study is spent principally in the Law School. The second and third years are combined according to the interest of the student. As many as six term courses, designated by the student at the beginning of the term, may be counted toward both degrees. During this time all course work and language requirements for the Ph.D. program are normally completed. The J.D. should be completed by the end of the fourth year. During the fifth year the student is expected to complete all remaining predissertation requirements and be admitted to candidacy. Any exception to this pattern of study must be approved by the appropriate dean.

The minimum residence requirement in the J.D./Ph.D. program is four years. The tuition requirement is two and one-half years in the Law School and three and one-half years in the Graduate School. Financial aid is provided by each school according to its own criteria, typically for two and one-half years in the Law School and three and one-half years in the Graduate School, and is awarded by each school during the terms in which the student pays tuition in that school.

In the J.D./M.A. program, the J.D. and M.A. degrees are awarded simultaneously at the end of the fourth year of study in one-year M.A. programs and at the end of four and one-half years of study in two-year M.A. programs. The Graduate School tuition requirement for J.D./M.A. students in one-year M.A. programs is one year of tuition; students in two-year M.A. programs have a one and one-half year tuition requirement in the Graduate School. In all cases students pay three years of tuition in the Law School. Students in J.D./M.A. programs, like other students in M.A. programs, are not ordinarily eligible for University Fellowship aid through the Graduate School. Students usually enroll in the Law School during the first year of study. The pattern of enrollment in subsequent years depends on whether the M.A. program is a one-year or a two-year program. No more than two Law School courses may be counted toward the M.A.

M.D./Ph.D. Program
This program is sponsored jointly by the Graduate School and the School of Medicine. Applications for admission to the joint program are reviewed by a committee composed of faculty members and deans from both schools. Normally, admission to the program includes simultaneous admission to both schools. However, students may apply to the joint program by October 15 of their second year of study in either the M.D. or Ph.D. program, and they must matriculate in the joint program no later than the beginning of the following year.

Students request affiliation with a particular department or program in the Graduate School by the middle of their third year of study in the joint program, after their course and research interests have been defined. Although students usually pursue their research in one of the biological sciences, those interested in earning the Ph.D. through work in another department may do so under certain circumstances, with the approval of the M.D./Ph.D. committee.

The residence requirement in this program is seven years. The full-tuition requirement is three and one-half years in the Medical School and two and one-half years in the Graduate School. To qualify for the M.D. and Ph.D. degrees, students must satisfy all degree requirements of both schools. Normally, a student admitted to this joint program must satisfy the Graduate School Honors requirement by the end of the second year of study and must complete all remaining predissertation requirements within four terms of affiliation with the Ph.D. department. This schedule may be adjusted for students who have been enrolled in either the Medical School or the Graduate School before admission to the M.D./Ph.D. program.

Petitioning for Degrees
Graduate School degrees are awarded twice each year, at Commencement in May and in the fall (normally in December, depending on the schedule of the Yale Corporation). Degrees are not granted automatically. Students must file a petition for each degree by the appropriate date (see Schedule of Academic Dates and Deadlines on pages 400-403). Petitions that have received favorable recommendations from the student's department are reviewed by the appropriate degree committee. When the degree committee has given its approval, the petition is forwarded to the Faculty of the Graduate School and then to the Yale Corporation. If the petition is successful, the student will be notified in writing by the dean of the Graduate School.

Students enrolled in Ph.D. programs should not petition for M.A./M.S. and M.Phil. degrees until the end of the term in which requirements for the degree are completed (e.g., students completing degree requirements during the spring term should petition for award of the degree the following fall).

Dissertation Submission
Dissertations must be submitted to the Graduate School by October 1 for degrees to be considered at the fall meetings of the degree committees and by March 15 for consideration at May meetings of the degree committees. These deadlines have been established to allow sufficient time for readers to make careful evaluations and for departments to review those evaluations and make their recommendations to the Graduate School. No extensions of the deadlines will be granted. Dissertations submitted after the deadlines will be considered during the following term.

In accord with the traditional scholarly ideal that the candidate for a doctorate must make a contribution to knowledge, all dissertations that have been accepted by the Graduate School are made available in the University library and published on microfilm (UMI Company). The only required fee associated with submission is $20 for binding of the library copy of the dissertation. UMI charges authors $45 if they wish to register a copyright. Publication on microfilm does not prevent the author from publishing the dissertation in another format at any time. Fees are subject to change.

Students must register continuously until either they have been awarded the Ph.D. or six years have elapsed since matriculation, whichever occurs first. During the first six years, students must be registered through the term of dissertation submission. Registration beyond the sixth year is not required. Registered students who submit dissertations will remain registered until the end of the term and will retain all privileges of registration (for example, library privileges and health care coverage). Students who complete all Ph.D. requirements within four continuous years of full-time study in the Ph.D. program will be registered and charged full tuition only through the term in which the dissertation is submitted. Students who have registered part time or taken a leave of absence must complete the four-year, full-tuition obligation, regardless of when they submit the dissertation.

The Graduate School does not require departments to evaluate the dissertations of degree candidates who are no longer registered. In practice, however, departments normally agree to evaluate these dissertations.
 

Academic Regulations

Registration
Only registered students may attend classes, receive financial aid, or use the facilities of the University. Students must register every term for the duration of their degree program (normally six years for Ph.D. programs and one or two years for students in M.A./M.S. programs). This regulation applies to all students, whether engaged in course work, preparation for qualifying examinations, or dissertation research and, in the case of students in Ph.D. programs, whether study is in residence or in absentia. Students who do not register for any term for which they have not been granted a leave of absence (see pages 370-71) will be considered to have withdrawn from the Graduate School.

No student may register for any term unless he or she is making satisfactory progress toward the degree and has been cleared by the Office of Student Financial Services to register. In compliance with Connecticut state law, no student will be allowed to register unless satisfactory evidence of immunity to measles and rubella has been presented to the Yale University Health Service (see University Services and Facilities).

Satisfactory progress means that the student has met all Graduate School and departmental requirements normally expected for each stage of the student's program. For Ph.D. students before admission to candidacy and for M.A./M.S. students, this includes satisfactory completion of courses from the preceding term(s). As indicated under Degree Requirements above (Course and Honors Requirements and Admission to Candidacy), students in Ph.D. programs must satisfy the Honors requirement before beginning the fifth term of study and must be admitted to candidacy by the appropriate time. In addition to satisfying these general Graduate School requirements, students must meet any additional requirements specified by their departments. Ph.D. students who have been admitted to candidacy must continue to demonstrate satisfactory progress toward the degree in the annual dissertation progress report. Students who fail to meet departmental or Graduate School requirements by the designated deadlines, and students who have been admitted to candidacy who fail to submit the annual dissertation progress report, will be barred from further registration and withdrawn.

Course Enrollment
Any student who wishes to enroll in courses during a term must submit to the registrar a course enrollment form, signed by the director of graduate studies of the student's department. The deadlines for filing course enrollment forms each term are listed in the Schedule of Academic Dates and Deadlines. Students who submit course enrollment forms after the appropriate deadline will be assessed a $25 fee.

No student may attend any class unless officially registered in the course. No credit will be given for work done in any course for which a student is not officially registered, even if the student entered the course with the approval of the instructor and the director of graduate studies. Students enrolling in courses offered by a Yale professional school are subject to all policies and deadlines of both the professional school and the Graduate School.

A student who wishes to audit a course must receive permission from the instructor before enrolling as an auditor, as not all faculty permit auditors in their classes. The minimum general requirement for auditing is attendance in two-thirds of the class sessions; instructors may set additional requirements for auditing their classes.

Course Changes
Once the course enrollment form has been submitted to the registrar, all changes must be approved by the student's director of graduate studies and then filed with the registrar. If a student is enrolled in a professional school course, all changes in enrollment status must be reported to the registrar of that school as well as to the Graduate School. Forms for reporting changes to the Graduate School are available at the Graduate School Student Information Office, 139 HGS, as well as from the student's department.

The dates for changing enrollment in a course from credit to audit or audit to credit and for withdrawing from a course are listed in the Schedule of Academic Dates and Deadlines. If a student stops attending a course in which he or she is enrolled for credit but does not file a course change form with the registrar, a permanent "Incomplete" will be recorded on the student's record for that course. Similarly, if a student attends a course, for credit or audit, that was not listed on the student's approved course enrollment form for that term, the course will not be entered in the student's record and credit for the course will not be given. A fee of $25 per course will be charged for changes made after midterm (fall term: October 26; spring term: March 8).

Grades
The grades assigned in the Graduate School are:

H = Honors
HP = High Pass
P = Pass
F = Fail

Marks of Credit/No Credit are assigned for History of Art students enrolled in History of Art courses.

Marks of Satisfactory/Unsatisfactory may be assigned only when the department sponsoring the course has designated such marks. In such cases, all students enrolled in the course must receive these marks; individual students may not receive grades for the course.

The Graduate School does not calculate grade-point averages nor does it assign numerical or letter equivalents to Graduate School grades. Grades assigned according to grading scales other than those described above will be returned to the instructor for conversion.

The Schedule of Academic Dates and Deadlines on pages 400-403 indicates the dates on which grades are due for the current year. Instructors have the responsibility for assigning dates for submission of course work to meet these grade deadlines. If a student and instructor have agreed that an extension is appropriate, the student must submit a request for the Temporary Incomplete (TI) with the intended completion date, signed by the instructor and the director of graduate studies. The instructor will indicate the mark of TI on the grade sheet, which is to be submitted to the Office of the Registrar by the appropriate grade submission deadline. Only one TI for courses taken in a single term is permitted. Temporary Incompletes received in an academic year must be converted to final grades by October 1 of the following academic year. If a grade is not received by the registrar by this date, the TI will be converted to a permanent Incomplete (I) on the student's record.

In certain extraordinary circumstances, such as serious illness or a family emergency, and on the recommendation of the student's department, the associate dean may grant an additional extension. A written request for such an extension must be made by the director of graduate studies on the student's behalf within two weeks of the grade submission deadline. The request should indicate the special circumstances and suggest a date by which the student will complete the work. If the request is approved, the associate dean will inform the student and instructor. If the grade is submitted to the registrar by the new deadline approved by the associate dean, it will replace the Temporary Incomplete. If a grade is not received by the registrar by this date, a Temporary Incomplete (TI) will be converted to a permanent Incomplete (I) on the student's record.

"Provisional" or "temporary" grades (as opposed to Incompletes) are not permitted. Once submitted to the Office of the Registrar, a grade may be changed only in cases of arithmetical or clerical error on the part of the instructor and only with the approval of the appropriate associate dean.

Students are reminded that the policies stated above are the Graduate School minimum general requirements. Departments or individual instructors may have more stringent policies and students should consult their departmental handbooks or directors of graduate studies about such requirements.

Registration Status and Leaves of Absence

Registration in Residence
Students studying on campus, attending classes, and using University facilities register in residence. All M.A./M.S. and nondegree (DSR) students must register in residence each term, as do most students in Ph.D. programs (see also Registration in Absentia and Continuous Registration Fee, below). Students who will be in residence during any term are required to register in person during the normal registration period at the beginning of that term (see the Schedule of Academic Dates and Deadlines).

A fee of $25 will be charged to students who register in residence after the close of the registration period but within the first ten days of the term. Registration after the tenth day of the term requires the permission of the director of graduate studies, the registrar, and, in some instances, of the appropriate associate dean. Additional fees may be imposed for registration after the tenth day of the term. Late fees may be waived only if the registrar receives written notification from the student or director of graduate studies before the start of the registration period that the student will register late because of participation in an academic program, such as a summer language course or professional meeting, that coincides with the registration period. A student who cannot register during the registration period because of a sudden serious illness or family emergency should contact the deputy registrar (141 HGS) as soon as possible.

Registration in Absentia
Ph.D. students who have not yet completed the four-year full-tuition requirement and whose program of study requires full-time dissertation research, full-time field work, or full-time study at another academic institution outside the New Haven area, may request to be registered in absentia. Such registration requires the recommendation of the director of graduate studies and the approval of the appropriate associate dean. Forms for requesting registration in absentia may be obtained at the Graduate School Student Information Office reception desk and should be filed at least one month before the beginning of the term during which the student expects to be studying away from New Haven. A student who has not completed the three-year residence requirement will be permitted to register in absentia for compelling academic reasons only, and normally only if the student has completed all other predissertation requirements.

Students who register in absentia before completing the four-year full-tuition requirement will normally be charged full tuition. Registration in absentia does not reduce the four-year full-tuition or three-year residence requirements, nor will a student who has not met the full tuition requirement be permitted to pay the special fee for more than one year. For additional information, see Eligibility for Fellowships.

Students who are enrolled in the Yale Health Plan and are registering in absentia should consult the staff of the Member Services department at the University Health Services about the policies governing coverage while they are away from New Haven.

Continuous Registration Fee
Ph.D. students who have completed the tuition and residence requirements described on pages 358-59 above must continue to register each term through the sixth year whether in residence or in absentia, or until they submit the dissertation, whichever occurs first. Students are charged a Continuous Registration Fee (CRF), which in 2001-2002 is $240 per term. Students who are granted extensions beyond the sixth year are also charged this fee. Forms for continuing registration are provided to eligible students before the start of each term and must be submitted by the end of the registration period for that term.

Summer Registration
Most Ph.D. students and many M.A./M.S. students continue full- or half-time independent study or research during the summer. Students who were registered during the preceding spring term and are engaged in degree-related activities at least half-time may register for the summer research term, approximately June 1 through August 31.

Leaves of Absence
Students who wish or need to interrupt study temporarily may request a leave of absence. There are two types of leave, personal and medical, described below. The general policies that apply to both types of leave are:

1. All leaves of absence must be approved by the appropriate associate dean on the recommendation of the department. Medical leaves also require the recommendation of a Yale Health Plan (YHP) physician, as described below; see Medical Leave of Absence.

2. Students in Ph.D. programs may be granted a leave for one term or one academic year. A leave extends the eligibility for fellowship aid by a time equal to the duration of the leave, but not for partial terms. The expected last date of registration will be adjusted by one term for each term of the leave.

Students in one-year M.A./M.S. programs may be on leave for a maximum of one term. Students in two-year M.A./M.S. programs may be on leave for a maximum total of one year.

In exceptional circumstances renewal of one term or one year, to a maximum total of two years of leave, may be granted for students in Ph.D. programs. Leaves of absence for students in M.A./M.S. programs are not renewable. Students who fail to register for the term following the end of the approved leave will be considered to have withdrawn from the Graduate School.

3. Students on leave may complete, by the appropriate deadline for the term in which the course was taken, outstanding work in courses for which they have been granted approved incompletes. They may not, however, fulfill any other degree requirements during the time on leave. (Students who intend to work toward the degree while away from the University must request registration in absentia.) Students who in fact make progress toward the degree while on leave will have their registration changed retroactively to in absentia for the period of the leave.

4. Students on leave are not eligible for financial aid, including loans, or for the use of any University facilities normally available to registered students, with the exception of the Yale Health Plan, in which they may enroll through the Student Affiliate Coverage plan. In order to secure continuous YHP coverage, enrollment in this plan must be requested prior to the beginning of the term in which the student will be on leave or, if the leave commences during the term, within thirty days of the date when the leave is granted. Coverage is not automatic; enrollment forms are available from the Member Services department of the Yale Health Service, 17 Hillhouse Avenue, 203.432.0246. Additional information may be found in the YHP Student Handbook.

5. A leave of absence does not exempt the student from meeting the tuition requirement (payment of eight terms of full tuition in Ph.D. programs, or the appropriate established tuition charge in M.A./M.S. programs) or from paying the Continuous Registration Fee (if appropriate), but merely postpones the required charges.

6. Students on leave of absence do not have to file a formal application for readmission. However, they must notify the registrar in writing of their intention to return. Such notification should be given at least six weeks prior to the end of the approved leave.

Personal Leave of Absence
A student who is current with his or her degree requirements and who wishes to interrupt study temporarily for reasons such as pregnancy, maternity or paternity care, or because of financial exigencies, may request a personal leave of absence. The general policies governing leaves of absence are described above. Students are eligible for personal leaves after satisfactory completion of at least one term of study. Normally, students in Ph.D. programs are not eligible for personal leaves after the fourth year of study. In certain exceptional cases, however, personal leaves may be granted to students beyond the fourth year of study for reasons of pregnancy, maternity or paternity care, or for military service. Personal leaves cannot be granted retroactively and normally will not be approved after the tenth day of a term.

To request a personal leave of absence, the student must write to the appropriate associate dean before the beginning of the term for which the leave is requested, explaining the reasons for the proposed leave and stating both the proposed start and end dates of the leave and the address at which the student can be reached during the period of the leave. If the dean finds the student to be eligible and the department approves, the leave will be granted. In any case the student will be informed in writing of the action taken. Students who do not apply for a personal leave of absence, or who apply for a leave but are not eligible, and who do not register for any term, will be considered to have withdrawn from the Graduate School.

Medical Leave of Absence
A student who must interrupt study temporarily because of illness may be granted a medical leave of absence with the approval of the appropriate associate dean, on the written recommendation of a physician on the staff of the University Health Services and of the student's department. The general policies governing all leaves of absence are described above, including information about health care coverage. A student who is making satisfactory progress toward his or her degree requirements is eligible for a medical leave any time after matriculation. Students who are granted a medical leave during any term will have their tuition adjusted according to the same schedule used for withdrawals (please see Schedule of Academic Dates and Deadlines). Before re-registering, a student on medical leave must secure written permission to return from a physician at the University Health Services. Advanced Ph.D. students may return at any time, with the permission of the Yale Health Plan.

Forms for requesting a medical leave of absence are available at the Graduate School Student Information Office. Health coverage options during a leave of absence are described under University Services and Facilities.

Withdrawal and Readmission
A student who wishes to terminate his or her program of study should confer with the director of graduate studies and the appropriate associate dean regarding withdrawal; their signatures on an official withdrawal form are required for withdrawal in good standing. The associate dean will determine the effective date of the withdrawal, upon consultation with the department. The University identification card must be submitted with the approved withdrawal form in order for withdrawal in good standing to be recorded. Withdrawal forms are available at the Graduate School Student Information Office.

Students who fail to meet departmental or Graduate School requirements by the designated deadlines will be barred from further registration and withdrawn, unless an extension or exception has been granted by the appropriate dean or degree committee. Students who do not register for any fall or spring term, and for whom a leave of absence has not been approved by the appropriate associate dean, are considered to have withdrawn from the Graduate School.

A student who is currently registered and who withdraws during the academic year without submitting an approved withdrawal form and the University identification card will be liable for the tuition charge (or Continuous Registration Fee) for the term in which the withdrawal occurs. Tuition charges for students who withdraw in good standing will be adjusted as described in the Schedule of Academic Dates and Deadlines. The Continuous Registration Fee for the term is not canceled if a student withdraws after the fourteenth day of the term. Health service policies related to withdrawal and readmission under University Services and Facilities.

A student who has withdrawn from the Graduate School and who wishes to resume study at a later date must apply for readmission. Neither readmission nor financial aid is guaranteed to students who withdraw. The deadline for making application for readmission is January 2 of the year in which the student wishes to return to the Graduate School. The student's application will be considered by the department, which will make a recommendation for review by the appropriate associate dean. The student's remaining tuition obligation will be determined at the time of readmission. Ph.D. students who withdraw after completion of the full tuition requirement and who are subsequently readmitted will be charged the accumulated CRF up to a maximum of four terms.

Personal Conduct
Yale University is an academic community dedicated to the advancement of learning. Its members freely associate themselves with the University and in doing so affirm their commitment to a philosophy of tolerance and respect for all members of the community. They pledge to help sustain the intellectual integrity of the University and to uphold its standards of honesty, free expression, and inquiry. They are expected to abide by the regulations of the University. They are also expected to obey local, state, and federal laws, and violations of these may be cause for discipline by the Graduate School.

The Graduate School specifically prohibits the following forms of behavior by graduate students:

1. Cheating on examinations, problem sets, and any other form of test; also, falsification and/or fabrication of data.

2. Plagiarism, that is, the failure in a dissertation, essay, or other written exercise to acknowledge ideas, research, or language taken from others.

3. Misuse of the materials or facilities of the University Library.

4. Unauthorized use of University services, equipment, or facilities, such as telephones and photocopying equipment.

5. Violation of University rules for using information technology services and facilities, including computers, the University network, and electronic mail. (See Policies for Use of Information Technology Services Facilities.)

6. Assault on, or coercion, harassment, or intimidation of, any member of the University community, including harassment on the basis of race, religion, gender, ethnicity, or sexual orientation; sexual harassment; or the use of a teaching position to harass or intimidate another student.

7. Disruption of a legitimate function or activity of the University community, including disrupting classes and meetings, blocking entrances and exits to University buildings, unauthorized occupation of any space on the Yale campus, or preventing the free expression or dissemination of ideas. (See Report of the Committee on Freedom of Expression at Yale.)

8. Refusal to comply with the direction of a University police officer or other University official, including a member of faculty, acting in the performance of her or his duties.

9. Misuse, alteration, or fabrication of University credentials or documents, such as an identification card or a transcript or grade list, including grade lists submitted by teaching fellows.

10. Misrepresentation or lying during a formal inquiry by University officials.

11. Misrepresentation in applying for admission or financial aid.

12. Theft, misuse of funds, or willful damage of University property.

13. Trespassing on University property to which access is prohibited.

14. Possession or use of explosives and weapons on University property. Firearms and ammunition for sporting purposes must be registered and deposited with the University Police.

15. Interference with the proper operation of safety or security devices, including fire alarms, electronic gates, and sprinkler systems.

16. Unlawful manufacture, possession, use, or distribution of illicit drugs or alcohol on University property or as part of any University activity.

Violations of any of the above regulations will be referred to the Graduate School Committee on Regulations and Discipline, composed of three graduate students, three faculty members, normally one from each division, and an associate dean. Students found guilty of such violations will be subject to one or more of the following penalties:

Reprimand
Probation
Suspension
Dismissal
Fines
Restriction

The primary function of a university is to discover and disseminate knowledge by means of research and teaching. To fulfill this function a free interchange of ideas is necessary not only within its walls but with the world beyond as well. It follows that the university must do everything possible to ensure within it the fullest degree of intellectual freedom. The history of intellectual growth and discovery clearly demonstrates the need for unfettered freedom, the right to think the unthinkable, discuss the unmentionable, and challenge the unchallengeable. To curtail free expression strikes twice at intellectual freedom, for whoever deprives another of the right to state unpopular views necessarily also deprives others of the right to listen to those views.

We take a chance, as the First Amendment takes a chance, when we commit ourselves to the idea that the results of free expression are to the general benefit in the long run, however unpleasant they may appear at the time. The validity of such a belief cannot be demonstrated conclusively. It is a belief of recent historical development, even within universities, one embodied in American constitutional doctrine but not widely shared outside the academic world, and denied in theory and in practice by much of the world most of the time.

Because few other institutions in our society have the same central function, few assign such high priority to freedom of expression. Few are expected to. Because no other kind of institution combines the discovery and dissemination of basic knowledge with teaching, none confronts quite the same problems as a university.

For if a university is a place for knowledge, it is also a special kind of small society. Yet it is not primarily a fellowship, a club, a circle of friends, a replica of the civil society outside it. Without sacrificing its central purpose, it cannot make its primary and dominant value the fostering of friendship, solidarity, harmony, civility, or mutual respect. To be sure, these are important values; other institutions may properly assign them the highest, and not merely a subordinate, priority; and a good university will seek and may in some significant measure attain these ends. But it will never let these values, important as they are, override its central purpose. We value freedom of expression precisely because it provides a forum for the new, the provocative, the disturbing, and the unorthodox. Free speech is a barrier to the tyranny of authoritarian or even majority opinion as to the rightness or wrongness of particular doctrines or thoughts.

If the priority assigned to free expression by the nature of a university is to be maintained in practice, clearly the responsibility for maintaining that priority rests with its members. By voluntarily taking up membership in a university and thereby asserting a claim to its rights and privileges, members also acknowledge the existence of certain obligations upon themselves and their fellows. Above all, every member of the university has an obligation to permit free expression in the university. No member has a right to prevent such expression. Every official of the university, moreover, has a special obligation to foster free expression and to ensure that it is not obstructed.

The strength of these obligations, and the willingness to respect and comply with them, probably depend less on the expectation of punishment for violation than they do on the presence of a widely shared belief in the primacy of free expression. Nonetheless, we believe that the positive obligation to protect and respect free expression shared by all members of the university should be enforced by appropriate formal sanctions, because obstruction of such expression threatens the central function of the university. We further believe that such sanctions should be made explicit, so that potential violators will be aware of the consequences of their intended acts.

In addition to the university's primary obligation to protect free expression there are also ethical responsibilities assumed by each member of the university community, along with the right to enjoy free expression. Though these are much more difficult to state clearly, they are of great importance. If freedom of expression is to serve its purpose and thus the purpose of the university, it should seek to enhance understanding. Shock, hurt, and anger are not consequences to be weighed lightly. No member of the community with a decent respect for others should use, or encourage others to use, slurs and epithets intended to discredit another's race, ethnic group, religion, or sex. It may sometimes be necessary in a university for civility and mutual respect to be superseded by the need to guarantee free expression. The values superseded are nevertheless important, and every member of the university community should consider them in exercising the fundamental right to free expression.

We have considered the opposing argument that behavior which violates these social and ethical considerations should be made subject to formal sanctions, and the argument that such behavior entitles others to prevent speech they might regard as offensive. Our conviction that the central purpose of the university is to foster the free access of knowledge compels us to reject both of these arguments. They assert a right to prevent free expression. They rest upon the assumption that speech can be suppressed by anyone who deems it false or offensive. They deny what Justice Holmes termed "freedom for the thought that we hate." They make the majority, or any willful minority, the arbiters of truth for all. If expression may be prevented, censored or punished, because of its content or because of the motives attributed to those who promote it, then it is no longer free. It will be subordinated to other values that we believe to be of lower priority in a university.

The conclusions we draw, then, are these: even when some members of the university community fail to meet their social and ethical responsibilities, the paramount obligation of the university is to protect their right to free expression. This obligation can and should be enforced by appropriate formal sanctions. If the university's overriding commitment to free expression is to be sustained, secondary social and ethical responsibilities must be left to the informal processes of suasion, example, and argument.

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